Trystan Casey
Conductors are materials that allow electricity to flow through them. Non-metals are generally considered to be poor conductors of electricity, also known as insulators. However, there are exceptions to this rule. For instance, at extremely low temperatures, certain non-metals become superconducting, meaning they can carry a potentially unlimited amount of current. Additionally, some non-metals like graphite and liquids are good electrical conductors.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Conductors | Substances or materials that allow electricity to flow through them |
| Non-conductors (Insulators) | Substances or materials that do not allow electricity to flow through them |
| Non-metals | Considered non-conductors or insulators |
| Metals | Considered good conductors |
| Semiconductors | Act as good conductors under some conditions but poor conductors under others |
| Superconductors | Substances or materials that can carry a potentially unlimited amount of current |
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What You'll Learn
Metals are good conductors due to their free-moving electrons
Metals are considered good conductors of electricity due to their free-moving electrons. A conductor is a substance or material that allows electricity to flow through it. In a conductor, electrical charge carriers, usually electrons or charged ions, move easily from atom to atom when voltage is applied.
Metals have a large number of free electrons, which are not bound to any specific atom. This means they can move freely throughout the metal structure, allowing for the transfer of electric current. The closely packed nature of metal atoms further enables electrons to pass from one atom to another with minimal resistance.
In the metallic framework, these freely moving electrons act as charge carriers, allowing the passage of electric current. When voltage is applied to a metal, it creates an electric field that encourages these free electrons to move, generating an electric current. This is why metals are considered good conductors.
The atomic structure of metals also contributes to their conductivity. Metals typically have one or two electrons in their outer shell, which are loosely bound to the nuclei of the metal atoms. This loose binding allows these outer electrons to move easily within the structure. Additionally, in the solid state, the valence electrons in metals are relatively free to leave one atom and associate with another nearby atom. Such "free" electrons can be influenced by an electric field, and their movement constitutes an electric current.
Some of the best conductor metals include copper, silver, gold, and aluminium. These metals are frequently used in electrical wiring and power transmission due to their excellent conductivity.
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Non-metals are insulators due to their bound electrons
Non-metals are generally poor conductors of electricity and are known as insulators. This is due to their tightly bound valence electrons, which do not allow for the free flow of electrons. In other words, non-metals have low electrical conductivity because their electrons are tightly bound to the atoms, preventing the movement of charges and the flow of current. Materials with many free electrons, also known as delocalized electrons, are good conductors.
Metals, on the other hand, are typically good electrical conductors. Examples include copper, aluminium, and silver. However, some non-metals, such as graphite, are exceptions and can conduct electricity well. Graphite, found in pencils, can be used to complete an electrical circuit.
Insulators are materials that are poor conductors of electricity and impede the flow of electric current. Common insulators include plastic, wood, and glass. Plastic, for example, is widely used as an insulator for electric wires because it hardly conducts electricity, preventing electric shocks.
Liquids can also be insulators if they do not contain dissolved salts or minerals, such as distilled water, oil, or alcohol. Conversely, liquids that contain these substances, like saltwater, are called electrolytes and can conduct electricity.
Gases generally act as insulators and do not facilitate the passage of electrical currents, which is why electricity cannot easily travel through the air.
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Some non-metals are semiconductors
While nonmetals are generally considered poor conductors of electricity, some non-metals are semiconductors. Semiconductors are materials that can be compromised by doping them with impurities, which alters their electronic properties in a controllable way. They can act as good conductors under some conditions and poor conductors under others.
Some non-metallic elements, such as carbon, silicon, magnesium, and boron, are known to exhibit semiconductor properties. For example, silicon is a critical element for fabricating most electronic circuits, and its conductivity can be increased through a process called doping, where a small amount of pentavalent or trivalent atoms are added. This increases the number of charge carriers within the crystal lattice, improving the material's conductivity.
Similarly, gallium arsenide, a compound of gallium and arsenic, is another commonly used semiconductor. It is the second most common semiconductor after silicon and is employed in laser diodes, solar cells, and microwave-frequency integrated circuits. Gallium arsenide is also a semi-insulator, finding niche applications in micro-electronics such as substrates for HEMT.
The defining characteristic of semiconductors is their ability to display a range of useful properties, such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other, exhibiting variable resistance, and responding to light or heat. These properties make semiconductors extremely valuable in modern electronics, including diodes, transistors, and microchips.
In conclusion, while nonmetals are typically poor conductors of electricity, some non-metals, like silicon and boron, exhibit semiconductor behaviour, making them essential in various electronic applications.
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Superconductors have zero resistance
Non-metals are considered bad conductors of electricity, or insulators. However, some non-metals like graphite and liquids are good electrical conductors.
Now, let's discuss superconductors, which are materials with zero resistance and exceptional conductivity.
Superconductors are materials with zero resistance to the flow of electric current. This means that once a current is established in a loop of a superconductor, it can persist indefinitely without any voltage being applied. This phenomenon is known as superconductivity and was discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911. He observed that at extremely low temperatures, the resistance of solid mercury abruptly disappeared. Since then, superconductivity has been observed in various other materials, such as lead and niobium nitride.
The zero resistance of superconductors is a result of the complete cancellation of the magnetic field within the material, known as the Meissner effect. This effect occurs during the transition of the material into the superconducting state. It is important to note that not all superconductors exhibit zero resistance under all conditions. There are two types of superconductors: Type I superconductors always exhibit zero resistance, while Type II superconductors can exhibit zero resistance in low magnetic fields. However, at certain magnetic field strengths and current densities, Type II superconductors can enter a vortex state, where resistance may appear.
The zero resistance of superconductors has been experimentally validated, and it is theoretically supported by Ohm's law, which states that if the voltage across a material is zero, then the resistance is also zero. Additionally, the longevity of currents in superconductors further supports the idea of zero resistance. These currents can persist for incredibly long periods, with estimates ranging from 100,000 years to beyond the lifetime of the universe.
While it is challenging to measure absolute zero resistance due to the limitations of measurement instruments, the best theoretical understanding suggests that superconductor resistance is, indeed, exactly zero.
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Conductivity depends on the energy bands of a substance
Conductivity refers to the capacity of a substance to transmit electricity or heat. A good conductor allows the free flow of electricity since it offers little or no resistance to the flow of electrons, resulting in a high electrical current.
In solid-state physics, the valence band and conduction band are the bands closest to the Fermi level, and they determine the electrical conductivity of the solid. The valence band is the highest range of electron energies in which electrons are normally present at absolute zero temperature, while the conduction band is the lowest range of vacant electronic states. The valence band and conduction band are separated by a band gap, an energy range in a solid where no electron states can exist due to the quantization of energy.
For a material to conduct electricity, there must be no energy gap between its valence band and conduction band. In conductors, these bands overlap, allowing electrons to flow through the material even when a minimal amount of voltage is applied. The outer electrons in the valence band are only loosely attached to the atom, and the application of voltage or a thermal effect excites them, moving them from the valence band to the conduction band.
In insulators and semiconductors, the number of electrons is just enough to fill a certain number of low-energy bands, with the Fermi level falling within the band gap. Since there are no available states near the Fermi level, electrons are not freely movable, resulting in low electronic conductivity. In semiconductors, thermal excitation can provide enough energy for some electrons to jump the band gap and enter the conduction band, where they can conduct electricity.
The conductivity of a substance depends on its ability to flow electrons from the valence band to the conduction band. This is influenced by the availability of vacant electronic states, which allow electrons to increase their energy and accelerate when an electric field is applied. Additionally, holes or empty states in the valence band also contribute to conductivity by providing electrons with some degree of freedom.
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Frequently asked questions
No, this is not true of all non-metals. While non-metals are generally considered insulators, some non-metals are good conductors of electricity, such as graphite, graphene, and certain polymers.
Non-metals have bound electrons that cannot move easily. This means that they cannot conduct electricity as well as metals, which have free-moving electrons.
Graphite is a well-known example of a non-metallic conductor. It is a form of carbon that allows electricity to flow through it.
Pure elemental silver is one of the best metallic electrical conductors. Copper is also a well-known and widely used metal that conducts electricity efficiently.
