Molly Ayala
Before the advent of electricity, ice was harvested from natural sources such as mountains, lakes, and ponds, and stored in ice houses to preserve food and drinks. This practice, known as the ice trade, began in the 19th century and centred on the east coast of the United States and Norway. Ice was also harvested in ancient Persia and stored in structures called yakhchāls, which were large underground chambers with tall conical roofs that allowed warm air to escape. The ice trade revolutionised food preservation and transportation, and it wasn't until the early 1900s that the widespread adoption of mechanical refrigerators led to the decline of the natural ice industry.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Time period | 19th and early 20th centuries |
| Location | East coast of the United States and Norway |
| Industry name | Ice trade or frozen water trade |
| Key figures | Frederic Tudor, William Tudor |
| Techniques | Harvesting ice from ponds and streams, storing in ice houses, transporting via ship, barge, or railroad |
| Consumers | Wealthy individuals, families, grocers, barkeeps |
| Iceboxes | Lined with zinc or lead, included trays to catch melted water |
| Ice delivery | Horse-drawn wagons, delivered by "iceman" |
| Ice houses | Circular structures called wells or shades, built near ports |
| Weighing and loading ice | Ice blocks weighed and loaded with ice tongs and a whip, later with levered platforms |
| Competition | Artificial ice plants, mechanical refrigerators |
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What You'll Learn
Ice harvesting in the 19th and 20th centuries
Ice harvesting, also known as the frozen water trade, was a booming industry in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Centring on the east coast of the United States and Norway, it involved the large-scale harvesting, transportation, and sale of natural ice, and later, artificial ice.
The ice trade was started by Frederic Tudor, a New England entrepreneur, in 1806. He shipped ice to the Caribbean island of Martinique, intending to sell it to wealthy members of the European elite. Over time, the trade expanded to Cuba and the Southern United States, with other merchants joining Tudor in harvesting and shipping ice from New England. Ice was also exported from Scandinavia, particularly Norway, which became a major exporter to England, Europe, the Mediterranean, and even as far as the Kingdom of Kongo and Egypt.
The process of ice harvesting began with several days of cold weather, allowing the ice to freeze to a sufficient depth. Horse-drawn scrapers were used to clear subsequent snowfalls, and when the ice became 12-20 inches thick, it was ready for harvest. The ice was then cut into long continuous strips using either hand saws or powered saw blades, before being cut into large individual blocks for transport by wagon back to the ice house.
By the 1850s, specialist ice tool manufacturers were producing catalogues and selling products along the east coast. The invention of the circular cutting saw was discussed, but it was not introduced to ice harvesting until the early 20th century when gasoline engines became available.
At its peak in the late 19th century, the US ice trade employed an estimated 90,000 people and was capitalised at $28 million ($660 million in 2010). However, the industry began to decline with the introduction of artificial ice and mechanical refrigeration. By the 1920s, households were purchasing ice boxes lined with zinc or lead to preserve their food, and by the 1930s, electric refrigerators had become common in US homes, allowing ice to be made at home. The last time ice was harvested on the Kennebec River was in February 1919, and by the 1940s, refrigerators were common even in remote farm kitchens.
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The Ice King, Frederic Tudor
In the early 1800s, Frederic Tudor, also known as Boston's "Ice King", saw an opportunity to make money from frozen ponds. He introduced the world to chilled beverages and created a demand for ice that people never knew they had.
Born in 1783 in Boston, Massachusetts, Tudor came from a wealthy family. He was the third son of a prominent lawyer, William Tudor, and Delia Jarvis Tudor. Although he had the opportunity to attend Harvard, he dropped out of school at the age of 13 and later occupied himself with business.
Tudor's journey as an ice entrepreneur began in 1805 when he and his brother, William, planned to ship ice from New England to the Caribbean. They believed that once people experienced chilled refreshments, they would always want them. However, their idea was ridiculed, and no ship in Boston agreed to transport the cargo. Tudor then spent a significant amount of money on buying his own ship. On February 10, 1806, he shipped 80 tons of ice to Martinique, but unfortunately, no one wanted to buy it. Undeterred, he turned to Cuba for his next shipment but faced challenges due to poor storage facilities and an embargo act that prevented ice exports. Despite these setbacks, Tudor persevered and continued to develop innovative techniques to convince people they needed ice. He provided free ice to local bars and cafes, taught restaurants how to make ice cream, and promoted the use of ice in hospitals for cooling feverish patients.
Tudor's persistence paid off, and by the 1830s, he had expanded his ice business to New York and Maine. He shipped ice not just to the Caribbean but also to Europe, India, and as far away as Hong Kong. He made a fortune and became one of the richest Americans of his time. The ice trade he founded grew into a thriving, competitive industry, with rival firms selling ice worldwide.
Frederic Tudor passed away in 1864, leaving behind a legacy that changed global trade, consumption habits, and daily life. He showed that it was possible to transport ice over long distances and educated people about its value in food preservation. His success also contributed to the development of new sources of revenue, such as the creation of American frozen food meals.
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Ice trade and transportation
The ice trade and transportation industry was born out of the idea of one man, Frederic Tudor, in the early 1800s. Tudor introduced the world to chilled beverages and ice cream, creating a demand that never existed before. He shipped nearly 12,000 tons of ice from New England to the Caribbean, marking the beginning of the ice trade.
During the 1830s and 1840s, the ice trade expanded globally, with shipments reaching England, India, South America, China, and Australia. The ice trade revolutionized food preservation and transportation, as large supplies of natural ice allowed foods to be refrigerated or frozen. Ice was harvested from mountains, lakes and ponds, and even in deserts where water froze overnight. The trade was facilitated by transportation methods such as trains, boats, and horses, with ice being stored in large ice houses or depots in major cities.
To keep the ice from melting during transportation, large blocks of ice were favoured as they had a smaller surface area exposed to the air, resulting in slower melting. Insulation materials such as straw, stone, and wool were also used to maintain cold temperatures. The ice was then stored in iceboxes, similar to modern-day refrigerators, in households, businesses, and hospitals.
The ice industry continued to expand as American society increasingly demanded fresh meats, milk, and fruits. By the turn of the 20th century, nearly every household, grocer, and barkeep in America had an icebox. However, the very industry that depended on ice inadvertently led to its decline with the invention of electric freezers and refrigerators. These appliances became more reliable and affordable during the early 1900s, allowing people to make ice at home and reducing the need for shipped ice.
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Ice houses and ice depots
Ice houses, also known as ice wells, ice pits, or ice mounds, are structures used to store ice throughout the year. They were commonly used before the invention of electricity and modern refrigerators. The earliest evidence of ice houses dates back to ancient times, with remains of ice pits found in China from the 7th century BC and written evidence suggesting their use before 1100 BC. Alexander the Great used ice houses around 300 BC, and they were also employed by the Romans in the 3rd century AD.
The design of ice houses varied depending on the location and builder, but they were typically located near natural sources of ice, such as rivers and freshwater lakes. They were often built underground, with a rounded or conical shape to hold melted ice, and included a drain to remove the meltwater. British ice houses, introduced in the 1600s, were commonly brick-lined, domed structures with most of their volume underground.
During the winter, ice and snow were collected from lakes or rivers and transported to the ice house, where they were packed with insulation materials like straw or sawdust. This allowed the ice to remain frozen for many months, sometimes until the following winter. The ice was then used for various purposes, including food storage, drink cooling, and the preparation of cold desserts like ice cream and sorbets.
Ice houses played a significant role in the early economy of the New England region of the United States, with people like Frederic Tudor, known as Boston's "Ice King," forming companies to transport ice to warmer climates. Ice houses were also used in other parts of the world, such as the UK, where they imported ice from Scandinavia until the 1920s, and China, where they were used as early as the 7th century BC.
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Ice boxes and early refrigerators
Before the invention of electric refrigerators, ice was harvested from frozen lakes and ponds during the winter months and stored in ice houses, ice pits, or iceboxes. Iceboxes, also known as cold closets, were compact non-mechanical refrigerators that used blocks of ice to keep their contents cool. They were a common kitchen appliance in the early 20th century, with nearly every family, grocer, and barkeep in America owning one by 1900.
The icebox was invented by an American farmer and cabinetmaker named Thomas Moore in 1802. He used it to transport butter to markets, allowing him to sell firm butter instead of melted tubs like his competitors. His first design consisted of an oval cedar tub with a tin container fitted inside and ice between them, all wrapped in rabbit fur for insulation. Later versions featured hollow walls lined with tin or zinc and packed with insulating materials such as cork, sawdust, straw, or seaweed. The ice was placed in a tray or compartment near the top of the box, and cold air circulated down and around the storage compartments below. More elaborate ice houses with drainage systems and brick and mortar insulation were also constructed during this time.
In the 1920s, ice consumers purchased ice boxes lined with zinc or lead to preserve their food and drinks. The iceman was a staple in American towns and cities, delivering blocks of ice that were made to fit the ice boxes. However, by the 1930s, many Americans began to switch to newly affordable electric refrigerators, which offered more space and longevity for storing leftovers. By 1940, five million electric refrigerator units had been sold, and the ice harvesting industry began to decline.
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Frequently asked questions
Before electricity, ice was harvested from frozen ponds and lakes during the winter months. Horses and ice hooks were used to transport the ice to ice houses for storage.
The ice trade, also known as the frozen water trade, was a 19th-century and early 20th-century industry that centred on the east coast of the United States and Norway. It involved the large-scale harvesting, transport, and sale of natural ice, as well as the making and sale of artificial ice.
The ice trade was started by Frederic Tudor, a New England businessman born in 1783 in Boston, Massachusetts. He became known as the "Ice King" after shipping nearly 12,000 tons of ice to the Caribbean island of Martinique in 1806.
Ice was harvested from ponds, lakes, and streams, then stored in ice houses before being transported by ship, barge, or railroad to its final destination. Ice houses were also built in major ice-consuming cities to hold imported ice before its final sale and consumption.
The ice trade had a significant impact on the world, with ice becoming a lucrative cash crop and a necessity for those who could afford it. It also led to the development of artificial ice plants and the creation of companies such as the International Ice Company and the Bengal Ice Company. By the early 1900s, nearly every family, grocer, and barkeep in America had an icebox.
