Wiktor Wise
Before the invention of electricity, ice was a rare commodity, especially in warm climates. For centuries, people harvested ice from natural sources such as frozen lakes, rivers, and mountains. This ice was then stored in ice houses or transported and sold for commercial use. The ice trade, which began in the 19th century, centred on the east coast of the United States and Norway, with ice being shipped all over the world. The demand for ice grew, and in the early 20th century, nearly every household, grocer, and barkeep in America had an icebox. However, it wasn't until the 1920s that the first modern electric household refrigerators were sold, marking the end of the ice harvesting industry.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Commercial ice-making methods | Harvesting ice from mountains, lakes, rivers, and deserts |
| Earliest known ice-making structure | Yakhchāl, invented in Persia around 400 BC |
| Ice trade history | Began in the 19th century, centred in the US and Norway |
| Transportation methods | Ship, barge, or railroad |
| Notable figures | Frederic Tudor, John Gorrie, Alexander Twining |
| Transition to artificial ice | Various methods developed in the late 1800s, facing technical challenges |
| Ice boxes | Wooden boxes lined with tin, zinc, or lead, commonly used before electric refrigeration |
| Electric refrigeration | First introduced in the early 1900s, widely adopted by the 1920s |
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What You'll Learn
Ice harvesting from natural sources
Ice was typically harvested from natural sources such as mountains, lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams. In places like Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland, shaded lakes provided ice that could stay frozen throughout the year. Ice was also harvested from high altitudes, where it is frozen even during hot weather. In the desert, people collected ice from water that froze overnight.
Once harvested, the ice was cut into large blocks and packed together densely to insulate it from the heat. It was then stored in ice houses, which were subterranean structures that kept the ice in dark and cool conditions. The ancient Persians invented a structure called a yakhchāl, which was an effective method of storing ice in the desert. These were dome-shaped buildings, sometimes up to two stories tall, with an equal amount of space underground. The walls were made from a special heat-resistant and waterproof mortar called sārooj, composed of sand, clay, egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash in specific proportions. The tall conical roof allowed warm air to rise and escape, keeping the ice cool.
In the 19th century, the ice trade expanded with the use of ships, barges, and railroads to transport ice over long distances. Ice was shipped from New England to the Caribbean, Cuba, and the Southern United States, with more merchants joining the trade. The Kershow family introduced improved ice harvesting techniques to the New York region. The ice trade continued to grow, with an estimated two million tons of ice in storage across the United States in the 1850s.
The development of artificial ice-making technology in the late 19th century marked a transition for the ice trade. However, early attempts at commercial ice production faced challenges due to the large amounts of fuel and capital required, as well as the unreliable nature of the technology. It wasn't until the 1920s that the first modern electric household refrigerators were sold, signalling the end of the ice harvesting industry.
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Ice storage in iceboxes
Before the advent of electricity, ice was a valuable commodity, especially during the hot summer months. The ice trade, centred on the east coast of the United States and Norway, involved the harvesting, transport, and sale of natural ice for commercial and domestic use. This ice was stored in ice houses or pits before being shipped to its final destination.
The icebox, also known as a refrigerator, was an essential tool for ice storage and played a crucial role in the preservation of perishable foods. These iceboxes were typically made of wood and lined with tin or zinc. The ice was packed densely inside to insulate it from the heat, and cold air circulated down and around the storage compartments, keeping the contents cool. Cheaper models required daily maintenance, as melted ice water had to be drained, and new ice obtained to replace the melted ice.
The design of the icebox allowed for improved food preservation, eliminating the need for smoking, drying, or canning processes. This extended the shelf life of perishable items, revolutionising food storage and transportation.
The concept of iceboxes can be traced back to ancient times, with Persians storing ice in underground chambers called "yakhchāls" as early as 400 BC. These structures, made from a special heat-resistant mortar, effectively maintained cool temperatures. Similarly, the Romans utilised underground pits to preserve ice collected during winter, taking advantage of the consistent underground temperature of 12 °C (54 °F).
In the United States, the icebox evolved from early inventions like Thomas Moore's "Ice Box" or "Refrigeratory", an oval tub made of cedar wood with a tin lining, which he used to transport butter over long distances while keeping it firm. The ice trade pioneer, Frederic Tudor, also played a significant role in popularising the use of iceboxes by devising methods to insulate ice during transport.
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Ice trade and transportation
The ice trade, also known as the frozen water trade, was a 19th-century and early 20th-century industry that centred on the east coast of the United States and Norway. It involved the large-scale harvesting, transportation, and sale of natural ice, and later, artificial ice.
The trade was initiated by Frederic Tudor, a businessman from New England, in 1806. Tudor shipped ice to the Caribbean island of Martinique, intending to sell it to wealthy members of the European elite. He built a special ice house to store the ice. Over the years, other merchants joined him, and the trade expanded to Cuba and the Southern United States.
During the 1830s and 1840s, the ice trade continued to expand globally, reaching England, India, South America, China, and Australia. In 1839, ice from New England traders arrived in Sydney, Australia, and by the 1840s, shipments of New England ice were sent as far as Hong Kong, Southeast Asia, the Philippines, the Persian Gulf, New Zealand, Argentina, and Peru.
The transportation of ice was a crucial aspect of the trade. Ice was harvested from ponds and streams during the winter and then transported to ice houses using horse-drawn carriages. Trains, boats, and barges were also utilized to convey the ice to its final destination. To preserve the ice during transportation, large blocks were favoured as they had a smaller surface area exposed to the air, resulting in slower melting. Insulation materials such as straw, stone, and wool were employed to maintain the cold temperature.
The ice trade played a significant role in the meat, vegetable, and fruit industries, enabling growth in the fishing industry and introducing new drinks and foods. It flourished between the development of reliable transportation methods and the widespread adoption of mechanical refrigeration.
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Artificial ice production
The artificial production of ice became a necessity in the 19th century, with the growth of the ice trade. The ice trade centred on the east coast of the United States and Norway, involving the harvesting, transport, and sale of natural ice. This industry expanded in the 1830s and 1840s, with ice being shipped all over the world.
However, the demand for ice was outstripping supply, and the quality and safety of natural ice were also concerns. This prompted attempts to produce ice artificially on a commercial scale in the late 1850s. Several methods were invented, including Jacob Perkins's diethyl ether vapor-compression refrigeration engine, John Gorrie's air cycle engines, and ammonia-based approaches.
The production of artificial ice required large amounts of fuel and capital for machinery, making it challenging to produce at a competitive price. The early technology was also unreliable, with ice plants facing the risk of explosions. Despite these challenges, the artificial ice industry continued to develop, and by the early 1900s, ice was being produced on a larger scale and distributed for domestic and commercial use.
The development of electric freezers and refrigerators in the early 20th century marked the end of the ice harvesting industry. By the 1920s, households were purchasing ice boxes lined with zinc or lead, and by 1927, the first modern electric household refrigerator was sold.
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Ice delivery to households
The ice trade, also known as the frozen water trade, was a 19th-century and early 20th-century industry. It centred on the east coast of the United States and Norway, involving the harvesting, transport, and sale of natural ice, and later, artificial ice.
Ice was harvested from mountains, ponds, lakes, and streams, and even in deserts where water froze overnight. It was then stored in ice houses or ice pits, and later shipped by barge, railroad, or horse and carriage to its final destination.
The ice boxes, also known as ice chests or refrigerators, were made of wood and lined with tin or zinc. They were insulated with straw, stone, wool, or other materials, and kept perishable food items cold.
The ice trade began to decline with the advent of electric refrigeration. In 1851, Dr. John Gorrie received a patent for a mechanical refrigeration machine, but his idea was not taken seriously, and he faced financial difficulties. It wasn't until the late 1850s that attempts were made to produce artificial ice on a commercial scale, with various methods and machines being invented. However, producing artificial ice at a competitive price was challenging due to the high costs of fuel and machinery, as well as the unreliable nature of early technology.
The first modern electric household refrigerator was sold in 1927, and as these appliances became more affordable, the ice harvesting and transport business gradually came to an end.
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Frequently asked questions
Before electricity, ice was harvested from nature. In places like Norway, Sweden and Switzerland, people would collect ice from shaded lakes that stayed frozen for most of the year. Ice was also harvested from mountains at high altitudes, or from the desert where water freezes overnight.
Ice was stored in ice houses, which were subterranean structures that kept the space dark and cool. In ancient Persia, ice was stored in a yakhchāl, a large underground storage chamber with a tall conical roof that allowed warm air to escape.
Ice was transported by ship, barge, or railroad. In the early 20th century, the Iceman was a staple in American cities and towns, delivering ice blocks by horse-drawn wagon.
