Otis Singleton
The 19th century saw the development of electricity as a source of power, thanks to the pioneering work of scientists such as Benjamin Franklin, Alessandro Volta, and Michael Faraday. This period witnessed the evolution of generators and motors, with French, German, Belgian, and Swiss engineers making significant contributions. The invention of the carbon-filament lamp by Thomas Edison and the development of electric power transmission systems marked pivotal moments in the history of electricity. The race to supply power to major cities in the 20th century further propelled the distribution of electricity to the masses, profoundly shaping daily life and industrialization.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Electricity delivery methods | Hydraulic transmission using high-pressure water mains to deliver power to factory motors |
| Electricity usage | Powering street lights, electric motors in factories, streetcars, and lights in homes |
| First electric power transmission | 4000 V between Willamette Falls and Chapman Square in Portland, Oregon in 1889 |
| First high-voltage AC power station | 4-MW 10-kV 85-Hz in Deptford, London in 1889 |
| Arc lamps | Used for street lighting in major cities in the late 1870s, prone to flickering and producing harsh light |
| Electric companies' priorities | Supplying power to businesses and wealthy homeowners |
| Edison's contribution | Developing the first large-scale investor-owned electric illumination utility in lower Manhattan |
| Second Industrial Revolution | Started around 1860, marked by increased reliance on coal, petroleum, and electricity |
| Standardization | Development of large-scale energy networks and corporate monopolies |
| Consumer culture | Increased detachment between consuming appliances and their users from the location of energy production |
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What You'll Learn
Electric lighting
The development of electric generators in the 19th century made electric lighting practicable for the first time. The first electric lights were arc lamps, which produced light by creating an arc of electricity between two carbon rods. These lamps were extremely bright and could illuminate huge areas, but they also produced a strong smell and noise, and were too dangerous to be used indoors.
In 1878, Thomas Edison saw a market for a system that could bring electric lighting directly into customers' homes and businesses, a niche not served by arc lighting systems. After devising a commercially viable incandescent light bulb in 1879, Edison went on to develop the first large-scale investor-owned electric illumination utility in lower Manhattan.
By the end of 1881, New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Montreal, Buffalo, San Francisco, Cleveland, and other cities had Brush arc lamp systems, producing public light well into the 20th century. By 1893, there were 1500 arc lamps illuminating the streets of New York. However, electric lighting was still considered a luxury product, and it was not until the 1930s that new homes in urban areas of Britain were being lit by electricity.
The development of electric lighting had a significant impact on daily life and labour. For the first time, people had access to safe, clean light at the flick of a switch. Electric light sockets could also be used to power other small appliances, such as irons and toasters. In addition, the work of labourers became reorganised into a mechanical process, with each worker performing only one stage in the manufacturing process.
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Arc lamps
The 19th century saw the first practical use of electricity in technology, with arc lamps being one of the earliest applications. Invented by Humphry Davy in the first decade of the 1800s, arc lamps, also known as arc lights, produce light through an electric arc or voltaic arc. This was achieved by creating an arc between carbon electrodes in the air, resulting in a bright light.
In the 1870s, arc lamps started to be widely used for street and large building lighting, illuminating cities and becoming the brightest lights available until the 20th century. The Brush Electric Company played a significant role in this expansion by setting up a central station in December 1880 to supply arc lighting to a 2-mile (3.2 km) stretch of Broadway. By the end of 1881, other major cities, including New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, had adopted Brush arc lamp systems, and by 1893, there were 1500 arc lamps lighting the streets of New York.
The advantages of arc lamps were significant. They produced an exceptionally bright light, had a long lifespan compared to incandescent and fluorescent bulbs, and were energy efficient, resulting in lower energy costs and a smaller carbon footprint. However, they also had some drawbacks. Early arc lamps were prone to flickering and hissing due to the interaction of oxygen with the carbon rods, and they presented safety hazards with their high voltages and sparking risks, making them unsuitable for indoor use.
Despite their initial popularity, arc lamps began to be superseded by incandescent lights in the early 20th century. However, they continued to find specialized applications, such as in searchlights, movie projectors, and cinema projection, due to their ability to produce high-intensity ultraviolet light. Even in these fields, they were gradually replaced by xenon arc lamps and other alternatives. Today, arc lamps have become obsolete for most purposes but remain in use as a source of high-intensity ultraviolet light in certain niche applications.
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Power transmission systems
In the 19th century, electricity was only viable for use in technology for the first time. This century was marked by the Second Industrial Revolution, which saw coal, petroleum, and electricity emerge as dominant energy sources. The first chemical storage battery was invented in 1800, and the first powerful electrical generators were developed in the mid-19th century. However, due to the high cost of building generators, electricity was initially reserved for large projects or the wealthy.
During this period, cities also used hydraulic transmission, delivering power through high-pressure water mains to factory motors. For example, London's system delivered 7,000 horsepower (5.2 MW) over a 180-mile (290 km) network of pipes.
As technology improved, electricity began to replace steam power as the major resource for industries. This transition was driven by the development of large-scale energy networks and corporate monopolies, as well as advancements in generation and distribution systems, particularly in electric lighting. By the late 1870s, central power stations were providing power for arc street lights in major cities like New York, London, and Paris.
The race to supply power to the masses in the 20th century was led by renowned inventors and industrialists such as Edison and Westinghouse, who had Tesla on his side. Edison's Pearl Street Station in lower Manhattan was the first large-scale investor-owned electric illumination "utility," serving one square mile. It housed six 27-ton, coal-fueled electrical generators, each producing 100 kilowatts of power.
The availability of low-cost step-up and step-down transformers played a crucial role in the expansion of power transmission systems. This "universal system" allowed customers with varying voltage requirements to be served at a minimal conversion cost. The first "high-voltage" AC power station was put into service in 1889 in London, and the first electric power transmission line in North America operated at 4000 V, going online in 1889 as well.
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The race to supply energy
The 19th century saw the emergence of electricity as a viable energy source, marking a transformative era in human history. This period, known as the Second Industrial Revolution, witnessed a shift from traditional energy sources like coal and petroleum to the electrification of cities. The delivery of electricity became a race between inventors and industrialists, leaving an indelible impact on society.
During the mid-19th century, electricity was a luxury reserved for the wealthy. Most power stations were isolated, with customers building their own power sources, and electricity was primarily used for large projects or in the homes of the rich. However, by the late 1870s, central power stations emerged, providing power for arc street lights in major cities like New York, London, and Paris. These early arc lamps were problematic, with flickering, harsh light, and an annoying hum, making them unsuitable for indoor use.
The competition between gas and electric energy intensified, with electricity gradually gaining ground. The development of large-scale energy networks and corporate monopolies laid the groundwork for future electrification. Cities also utilized hydraulic transmission, delivering power through high-pressure water mains to factory motors. However, these systems were eventually replaced by cheaper and more versatile electrical systems.
The availability of low-cost step-up and step-down transformers played a pivotal role in the universal access to electricity. This "universal system" allowed customers with varying voltage requirements to be served at a minimal conversion cost. The simplicity and efficiency of polyphase generators and motors further propelled the transition to electrical systems, rendering DC dynamos obsolete.
As the 19th century drew to a close, city planners and financiers recognized the benefits and economics of establishing power transmission systems. The 20th century witnessed a continued race among electric companies to supply energy to major cities, profoundly changing daily life and industry. Electricity replaced steam power, reshaping labor processes and influencing industrial productivity, urbanization, and consumer culture.
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Electric chair
The 19th century saw the rise of electricity, which would go on to transform the world in the following century. In the early days, electricity delivery was hindered by the need for separate systems to power devices requiring different voltages. However, the simplicity and efficiency of polyphase generators and motors meant that, by the end of the century, city planners were well aware of the benefits of electrical systems.
The Electric Chair
The electric chair, a device used for capital punishment through electrocution, was conceived within this context of increasing electricity usage. The idea for the electric chair was first proposed by New York dentist Alfred P. Southwick in 1881, who had witnessed a fatal accidental electrocution. He began experimenting on animals and developed a repeatable method to euthanize them using electricity.
Southwick advocated for the use of electrocution as a more humane alternative to hanging, which was the primary method of execution at the time. In 1886, a commission was set up by the New York State governor, David B. Hill, to investigate more humane means of execution. Although a slight majority of respondents recommended hanging, the electric chair was first used for an execution in 1890. The debut caused outrage, as two shocks were needed to kill the murderer William Kemmler. However, it was soon adopted across many states, becoming a symbol of capital punishment in the United States.
The electric chair was originally designed by Thomas Edison's employees and commissioned by the governor of New York. Edison was against capital punishment but thought the electric chair was a more humane method of execution. He secretly arranged for the first electric chair to be powered by Alternating Current (AC), championed by his competitor, to scare people into thinking it was more dangerous.
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Frequently asked questions
The development of electricity as a source of power in the 19th century was pioneered by scientists such as Benjamin Franklin, Alessandro Volta, and Michael Faraday. Faraday demonstrated the relationship between electricity and magnetism in 1831, which led to the mechanical generation of electric current and its use in electric motors.
In the mid-19th century, electricity was reserved for large projects such as lighthouses or the homes of the wealthy, as the expense of building generators was high. By the late 19th century, central power stations were providing power for arc street lights in major cities like New York, London, and Paris.
The development of polyphase generators and motors made it possible to manufacture them cheaply and compactly, making it more accessible to the masses. The availability of low-cost step-up and step-down transformers meant that customers with specialized voltage requirements could be served at a minimal conversion cost.
One of the challenges in the early days of electric power usage was the need for specialized generators with separate lines for devices requiring different voltages. Additionally, lighting alone could not provide an economical market for electricity as its use was confined to the hours of darkness.
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