Wiktor Wise
Electrical conductors are materials that allow electricity to flow through them with ease. The most common electrical conductors are metals, such as copper, aluminium, and iron. The human body and the earth are also electrical conductors, although not as effective as metals. Materials with high electron mobility, such as metals, metal alloys, electrolytes, and some non-metals like graphite and liquids, are good electrical conductors. The best conductor is silver, but its high price limits its use to specialty applications.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | A conductor is a substance or material that allows electricity to flow through it. |
| Charge carriers | Electrical charge carriers, usually electrons or charged ions, move easily from atom to atom when voltage is applied. |
| Examples of materials | Metals, metal alloys, electrolytes, some non-metals (e.g. graphite, liquids), superconductors, semiconductors, plasmas, and conductive polymers. |
| Examples of metals | Copper, aluminium, gold, and silver. |
| Effect of temperature | Temperature affects the efficacy of conductors. As temperature increases, the vibration in conductor molecules also increases, disrupting the smooth flow of electrons and decreasing conductivity. |
| Resistance | Conductors with lower resistance can carry a larger current. All normal conductors have a small amount of resistance, which can cause them to heat up if too much current is applied. |
| Cross-sectional area | For a given material, conductors with a larger cross-sectional area have less resistance than those with a smaller cross-sectional area. |
| Length | For a given material, resistance is proportional to the length; longer conductors have higher resistance. |
| Impurities | The presence of impurities can affect conductivity. For example, pure water is an insulator, but saltwater conducts due to free-floating ions. |
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What You'll Learn
Metals, including copper, aluminium, and gold
Copper is widely regarded as one of the best conductors of electricity. It is the international standard for electrical conductivity, with the International Annealed Copper Standard conductivity being 58 MS/m. Copper's high conductivity makes it ideal for electrical wiring, although its rising cost has limited its use in recent years.
Aluminium is also a good conductor of electricity and is often used in wiring due to its lower price compared to copper. It conducts heat well and has good electrical conductivity, making it a practical choice for electrical applications.
Gold, a precious metal, is another excellent electrical conductor. Its high ductility or malleability allows for a solid electrical connection, ensuring minimal resistance to the flow of electrons. However, gold is extremely expensive, which limits its use to small amounts in connectors.
The effectiveness of a metal as an electrical conductor depends on various factors, including its resistance, size, and shape. Metals with lower resistance can carry larger currents, and thicker pieces of metal generally conduct better than thinner ones of the same size and length. Additionally, shorter pieces of metal with less resistance conduct better than longer pieces of the same thickness.
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Non-metallic conductors, such as graphite and conductive polymers
While metallic conductors are the most common type of electrical conductor, non-metallic conductors are becoming increasingly important in modern electronics and electrical engineering. Non-metallic conductors, such as graphite and conductive polymers, offer several advantages over traditional metallic conductors, including lower cost, greater flexibility, and higher resistance to corrosion.
Graphite, an allotrope of carbon, is a non-metallic conductor that is highly conductive when heated or in contact with molten metal. This is due to the structure of graphite, in which only three of the four carbon atoms are used for bonding, leaving one electron free for bonding. Graphite is often used in batteries, electrodes, and other devices that require high conductivity.
Conductive polymers, or intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs), are organic polymers that can exhibit metallic conductivity or semiconductor behaviour. They are easy to process, mainly by dispersion, and can be doped to fine-tune their electrical properties. Conductive polymers have been incorporated into commercial displays, batteries, and microwave-absorbent coatings, among other applications.
Carbon nanotubes, another type of non-metallic conductor, are tiny cylindrical structures made from graphene that can be used as conductive wires. They have high electrical conductivity and a small size, making them promising for use in electronics applications.
Non-metallic conductors also include ceramics, plastics, and other carbon materials. Ceramics can be made conductive through doping or other processes and are commonly used in capacitors, resistors, and other electronic components. Some plastics can be modified to become conductive and are used in printed circuit boards and antennas. Overall, non-metallic conductors offer unique advantages and are an important alternative to traditional metallic conductors.
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Electrolytes, like saltwater
Electrolytes are substances that conduct electricity through the movement of ions. They do not conduct electricity through the movement of electrons. Electrolytes include most soluble salts, acids, and bases dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water. When dissolved, the substance separates into cations and anions, which spread uniformly throughout the solvent.
Saltwater, for example, is an excellent conductor of electricity. Salt is sodium chloride, which consists of sodium (positively charged) and chlorine (negatively charged). When dissolved in water, the sodium and chlorine atoms separate, and their charges are no longer balanced out. Electricity jumps between the sodium and chlorine ions, not the water molecules, because they have opposite electrical charges.
Saltwater conducts electricity due to its free-floating ions. The presence of ions is what makes saltwater a much better conductor of electricity than pure water. Pure water is an insulator, whereas saltwater conducts well.
Electrolytes are also important in the human body. They help regulate chemical reactions and maintain the balance of fluids inside and outside cells. Electrolyte replacement is necessary when a person has been vomiting or had diarrhoea for an extended period, or after excessive sweating due to athletic activity.
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Semiconductors, including Germanium and Silicon
Semiconductors are materials that possess characteristics of both conductors and insulators. They have a low number of free electrons, which are needed for conductivity. Their atoms group together to form a crystal lattice through which electrical conductivity is possible, but only under the right conditions. The most common semiconductor materials are silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide. Germanium has four valence electrons, which are electrons located on the outer shell of the atom. The number of valence electrons in a semiconductor material determines its conductivity.
Germanium was one of the earliest semiconductor materials used. It has interesting semiconductor properties because it has the same number of electrons in its outer or valence shell as silicon. Germanium atoms have one more shell than silicon atoms. Germanium was the material of choice for early transistors before silicon overtook it in preference. Silicon is preferred because it is abundant, cheaper to manufacture, and has superior heat resistance. Silicon is also easier to process than germanium, able to handle higher power levels, and is more stable at higher temperatures.
Silicon and germanium can be doped or combined to form an alloy of silicon-germanium (SiGe) with a molecular formula of the form Si1−xGex. Doping, or introducing new elements into the atomic structure, enhances the conductive properties of semiconductors so they can properly function when used in electronics. Doping introduces more electrons that have the potential to become free and conduct electricity when they receive enough energy through heat.
Silicon wafers are ubiquitous in the semiconductor industry. They are used in solar cells, field-effect transistors, IoT sensors, and self-driving car circuits. Silicon is the principal component of common sand, which contains 95% silicon dioxide. Manufacturers can collect this sand at any quarrying site around the world. Germanium, on the other hand, is very scarce, with only about 1.5 parts per million elements in the Earth's crust.
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Human bodies, due to their high water content
The human body's ability to conduct electricity is a crucial consideration in various contexts, particularly when it comes to electrical safety. For instance, when a person comes into contact with an electrical current, their body can serve as a conductor, transmitting the current through their tissues and potentially resulting in serious injury or even death. This highlights the importance of proper insulation and grounding in electrical systems to prevent accidental electrocution.
Furthermore, the human body's conductivity can also be leveraged in certain medical applications, such as in the use of electrocardiograms (ECGs) to monitor heart activity. By placing electrodes on the skin, which act as conductors, it is possible to detect and record the electrical signals generated by the heart. This is a testament to the body's ability to not only conduct but also generate electrical impulses, showcasing the intricate relationship between electricity and the human body.
Additionally, the human body's conductivity has implications for daily activities such as using electronic devices or interacting with metallic objects. For example, touching a metal doorknob after shuffling across a carpet can result in a static electricity discharge, commonly known as a "shock." While often harmless, these discharges serve as a reminder of the ever-present potential for electrical conduction in our daily lives.
In summary, the human body's high water content, combined with the presence of electrolytes, renders it a conductor of electricity. This conductivity has significant implications for electrical safety, medical applications, and even everyday experiences with static electricity. Understanding the conductive nature of the human body is essential for both safeguarding against electrical hazards and harnessing the power of electricity for various purposes.
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