Otis Singleton
The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger, and every process that regulates our body. The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals throughout the body. Electrical signals are transmitted through nerve cells, also known as neurons, in the form of electrical pulses. The movement of ions carries an electrical wave along the length of a nerve cell, which is called a neuron. The neuron has local branches (like a tree) that receive signals, which are called dendrites, and a longer, simpler projection (like a tree trunk) that sends signals, called an axon. These signals travel along the auditory nerve, which connects through synapses to brain neurons that interpret smells.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| What carries electrical messages to the brain | Neurons |
| How does an electrical wave travel down a neuron | The cell membrane contains gated protein channels that can open and shut, allowing ions to enter or leave the cell |
| What is the function of neurons | Neurons carry information in the form of electrical pulses |
| How do neurons communicate | Neurons communicate with each other and the rest of the body at special meeting points called synapses |
| How do synapses work | Synapses change when we use them. These changes allow us to learn new information and remember what we have learned |
| How does the brain communicate with the body | The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals throughout the body. Different signals control different processes, and the brain interprets each |
| How does the brain communicate internally | The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system, which relies on billions of neurons (nerve cells) |
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What You'll Learn
Neurons
The structure of a neuron is similar to that of a tree. It has local branches that receive signals, called dendrites, and a longer, simpler projection that sends signals, called an axon. At the end of the axon are synapses, which release neurotransmitters—chemical signals that travel to another neuron to create a new electrical wave.
The electrical wave travels down a neuron through the movement of ions, which carry an electrical charge. The cell membrane contains gated protein channels that open and close, allowing ions to enter or leave the cell. This movement of ions along the axon creates an electrical wave. The electrical wave then causes the neuron to release neurotransmitters at the synapse.
The brain's synapses change when they are used. The number and size of synapses can increase or decrease depending on how often they are used. This plasticity allows us to learn new information and remember what we have learned.
The electrical activity of neurons can be measured by inserting an electrode into the brain, but this technique is labour-intensive and can only record the activity of one neuron at a time. A new imaging technique, using a voltage-sensing molecule that fluoresces when neurons are electrically active, has provided the clearest picture of brain cell activity to date.
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Ions
The brain communicates with the body through electrical signals transmitted by neurons. Neurons are a type of nerve cell that carries information in the form of electrical pulses. They have local branches that receive signals, called dendrites, and a longer, simpler projection that sends signals, called an axon.
The flow of charged particles, or ions, across the surface layer of a cell membrane carries electrical messages to the brain. The movement of ions creates an electrical wave along the length of a neuron. The cell membrane contains gated protein channels that can open and close, allowing ions to enter or leave the cell. When a channel opens, ions flood into the cell, carrying an electrical charge. This causes the next channel along to open, and the electrical wave moves along the cell.
For example, when you catch a ball, your brain sends an electrical signal to the neuromuscular junction synapse, releasing neurotransmitters into your finger muscles, causing them to contract and catch the ball. Similarly, when light enters your eyes, it triggers light-detecting neurons, sending an electrical message to the synapses of neurons inside your brain.
The brain's ability to generate and transmit electrical signals is due to the movement of ions across cell membranes. These ions carry electrical charges, creating electrical waves that propagate along neurons and enable communication between different parts of the brain and the body.
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Synapses
A synapse is a structure that allows neurons to transmit electrical or chemical signals to other neurons, glands, or muscle cells. It is a junction where both the transmission and processing of information occur, making it a vital means of communication between neurons.
The word "synapse" was introduced in 1897 by English neurophysiologist Charles Sherrington, who struggled to find a term that emphasised the union between two separate elements. The word is derived from the Greek "synapsis" (σύναψις), meaning "conjunction", which in turn comes from "synaptein" (συνάπτειν), or "to fasten together".
There are two types of synapses: chemical and electrical. In chemical synapses, neurons communicate through neurotransmitters released from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft. These neurotransmitters then bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, inducing an electrical or chemical response in the target neuron. The release of neurotransmitters occurs when a nerve impulse arrives at the presynaptic terminal, stimulating the regeneration of the action potential in the postsynaptic neuron.
On the other hand, electrical synapses allow for direct communications between neurons whose membranes are fused. This fusion permits ions to flow between the cells through channels called gap junctions, resulting in synchronous network activity in the brain. However, electrical synapses can also lead to complicated, chaotic network-level dynamics, making it challenging to define signal directionality.
The number and size of synapses can change with use. If they are used frequently, more synapses can form and strengthen, improving the communication between neurons. However, if they are not used as often, synapses can shrink or decrease in number, leading to a decline in the efficiency of signal transmission.
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Neurotransmitters
Some common neurotransmitters include glutamate, GABA, acetylcholine, glycine, dopamine, and norepinephrine. Glutamate is the primary excitatory transmitter in the central nervous system. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a major inhibitory transmitter. Acetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter to be discovered and plays a major role in the peripheral nervous system. Dopamine is involved in many functions, including motor control, reward and reinforcement, and motivation. Norepinephrine is the primary neurotransmitter in the sympathetic nervous system, controlling blood pressure, heart rate, and liver function, among other functions.
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Nerve cells
The structure of a nerve cell is similar to a tree, with local branches called dendrites that receive signals and a longer, simpler projection called the axon that sends signals. The movement of ions across the cell membrane, known as the membrane potential, is crucial for generating electrical signals in neurons. This movement of ions creates an electrical wave that travels along the length of the neuron, carrying the electrical message. The cell membrane contains gated protein channels that open and close, allowing ions to enter or exit the cell and generating an electrical charge.
Synapses are the special meeting points between neurons where communication occurs. When an electrical wave reaches the end of an axon, it releases neurotransmitters, which are chemical signals. These neurotransmitters travel to another neuron and create a new electrical wave in that cell, thus transmitting the signal. The binding of neurotransmitters to receptors opens channels in the receiving neuron, allowing ions to enter and continue the electrical message.
The brain, a complex organ that controls various bodily functions, is made up of billions of these neurons. They enable the brain to send and receive electrical signals to and from the rest of the body. Neurons in the brain interpret sensory information from our eyes, ears, and other senses, allowing us to understand and respond to our surroundings. These neurons carry information in the form of electrical pulses, and their activity forms the basis of our thoughts, behaviours, and perceptions.
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Frequently asked questions
Electrical messages are carried to the brain by neurons, which are nerve cells.
Neurons carry electrical messages in the form of electrical pulses. These pulses are generated by the flow of ions across their plasma membranes.
Neurons receive electrical messages through their local branches, called dendrites.
When neurons receive electrical messages, they release neurotransmitters, which are chemical signals. These neurotransmitters travel to other neurons to create new electrical waves.
Synapses are the special meeting points between neurons where communication occurs. They allow neurons to receive, integrate, and relay information to other neurons.
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