Umair Gaines
The human brain is a complex network of billions of neurons that communicate through electrical impulses, enabling us to think, feel, and interact with our surroundings. These electrical impulses, or signals, are responsible for brain activity and can be influenced by electrical stimulation. While the brain's electrical activity has traditionally been measured by inserting electrodes, new techniques involving fluorescent molecules and proteins are providing a clearer understanding of individual neuron behaviour. This evolving field of neurophysiology offers insights into cognition, behaviour, and emotion, with potential applications in treating mood disorders and enhancing cognitive functions.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Neurons in the brain communicate | Via rapid electrical impulses |
| Brain cells function | Using rapid electrical impulses |
| Brain stimulation | Can be used to change the brain's functioning |
| Brain stimulation | Can be used to treat mood disorders and stress |
| Brain stimulation | Can help people solve problems, memorize information, and pay better attention |
| Brain stimulation | Can be used to enhance learning and problem-solving |
| Brain stimulation | Can be used to enhance attention and impulses |
| Brain stimulation | Can be used to treat major depressive disorder (MDD) |
| Brain cells | Are covered with an insulating material known as myelin |
| Myelin | Is an insulation process that speeds up communication among brain cells |
| Myelin | Is wrapped around the fiber-like projections of neurons |
| Myelin | Is decreased in several mental disorders, including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder |
| Myelin | Is essential for the functioning of neurons |
| New imaging technique | Uses a voltage-sensing molecule that lights up when brain cells are electrically active |
| New imaging technique | Allows researchers to see the activity of many individual neurons |
| New imaging technique | Allows researchers to measure small fluctuations in activity |
| New imaging technique | Allows scientists to study how neurons behave millisecond by millisecond |
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What You'll Learn
Neurons and neurotransmitters
The brain is composed of a network of neurons, which are small cells that communicate with each other using electrical impulses. These impulses are facilitated by the presence of insulating material called myelin, which coats the neurons and speeds up the transmission of electrical signals. Myelination is influenced by mental activity, with stimulating environments and mastering new skills promoting the development of myelin.
Neurons communicate through a relay system of electrical impulses and specialised molecules called neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are essential to brain function, as they allow neurons to transmit signals to one another, facilitating the brain's coordination of behaviour, sensation, thoughts, and emotions.
The study of neurons and their electrical activity has been challenging due to the intricate network of neurons in the brain. Traditional methods of measuring electrical activity involve inserting electrodes into the brain, which is time-consuming and labour-intensive. However, recent advancements in imaging technology have provided a clearer understanding of neuronal activity. Researchers have developed fluorescent molecules and proteins that light up in response to electrical activity, allowing scientists to visualise the activity of individual neurons and their impact on overall brain function.
The ability to observe neuronal activity has led to the development of brain stimulation techniques such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). tDCS has been shown to influence cognitive processes, enhance learning and problem-solving abilities, and regulate mood. By applying electrical stimulation to specific areas of the brain, researchers can study and influence various aspects of cognition and behaviour.
The complex interplay of neurons and neurotransmitters forms the basis of our thoughts, feelings, and interactions with the world. The ongoing study of neuronal activity and brain stimulation techniques holds promise for treating mood disorders and enhancing cognitive functions.
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Electrical impulses
The complexity of the brain's electrical activity is astounding, with approximately 85 billion neurons in the average adult human brain and about 10 quadrillion connections, or synapses, between them. This intricate network of neurons communicates via electrical impulses and specialised molecules called neurotransmitters, allowing for the integration and processing of information.
The cell membrane, composed of phospholipids, plays a crucial role in maintaining the internal environment of the cell and facilitating interactions with the external environment. Ion channels within the cell membrane are particularly important for electrical impulses, as they allow the flow of ions, such as sodium, potassium, and calcium, into and out of the cell. These ions carry electrical charges, contributing to the electrical activity in the brain.
The efficiency of electrical impulse transmission in neurons is enhanced by myelination, an insulation process that speeds up communication between brain cells. Myelin, an insulating material, wraps around the projections of neurons, increasing the speed and efficiency of impulse conduction. Mental activity and environmental stimulation influence myelination, with higher levels of stimulation promoting increased myelin production.
The development of new imaging techniques, such as voltage-sensing molecules and light-sensitive proteins, has provided unprecedented insights into brain cell activity. These techniques allow researchers to visualise the electrical activity of individual neurons and study their behaviour millisecond by millisecond, advancing our understanding of how the brain functions and paving the way for potential treatments for neurological and mental health disorders.
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Brain stimulation
The brain's electrical activity is controlled by neurons that communicate via rapid electrical impulses, enabling thought, behaviour, sensation, emotion, and perception of the world.
There are two types of FDA authorization for brain stimulation devices: 'approved' and 'cleared'. Approved devices have benefits that outweigh the risks, and are usually required for devices that might have a significant risk of injury or illness, including those implanted in the body. Cleared devices are substantially equivalent to previously approved devices and are typically lower-risk devices used outside the body. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a non-invasive procedure that uses an electric current to induce seizure activity in the brain to treat serious mental disorders, particularly depression.
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a form of brain stimulation that can be used to treat mood disorders and enhance cognitive processes such as learning, problem-solving, memory, and attention. For example, stimulating the DLPFC using tDCS has been shown to enhance the ability to focus attention in patients with ADHD. tDCS has also been used to reduce symptoms of major depressive disorder (MDD), which is associated with persistent feelings of sadness, low energy, changes in appetite, and loss of interest in activities.
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Myelination
The myelin sheath has periodic interruptions, leaving short portions of the axon uncovered by myelin. These uncovered sections are known as nodes of Ranvier and are critical to the functioning of myelin. In myelinated axons, these nodes function as high-resistance insulators, exposing the excitable axonal membrane only at the nodes. This allows for saltatory conduction, where the impulse jumps from node to node, facilitating conduction while conserving metabolic energy and space.
The structure of myelin consists of alternating protein and lipid layers, with the lipid portion forming a bimolecular leaflet and the adjacent protein layers exhibiting some variations. Myelin, when examined under polarized light, exhibits both lipid-dependent and protein-dependent birefringence. Low-angle X-ray diffraction studies provide electron-density plots that reveal the repeating unit structure of myelin.
The process of myelination occurs at different rates in different areas of the nervous system. In humans, myelination begins in the motor roots during the fifth fetal month, and the brain is almost completely myelinated by the end of the second year of life. However, myelination continues in certain areas, such as the neocortex, even into the second decade of life. The rate and extent of myelination can vary across species, with some animals, like grazing cows, horses, and sheep, having more myelin in their CNS at birth, enabling a higher level of complex activity immediately after birth.
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Fluorescent imaging
One such fluorescent molecule is Archon1, developed by Edward Boyden's team at MIT. This molecule can be genetically inserted into neurons, embedding itself in the cell membrane. As the neuron's electrical activity increases, Archon1's fluorescence becomes more intense, visible under a standard light microscope. Archon1 has been successfully used to image electrical activity in transparent worms, zebrafish embryos, and mouse brain slices.
Building upon Archon1, researchers at MIT and Boston University introduced SomArchon, an improved fluorescent molecule. SomArchon accumulates in the centre of neuron cell bodies, preventing interference from neighbouring neurons' axons. This innovation enhances the clarity and specificity of fluorescent imaging, allowing for a more detailed understanding of neuronal activity.
The voltage-sensing capabilities of these fluorescent molecules enable scientists to study the behaviour of neurons on a millisecond timescale. By exposing cells to a specific reddish-orange light wavelength, the molecules emit a longer red light wavelength. The brightness of this light directly corresponds to the voltage of the cell, providing valuable insights into neuronal behaviour during specific functions.
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Frequently asked questions
Electrical activity in the brain is controlled by neurons, which are specialized cells that communicate via electrical impulses. These impulses are made possible by the insulating material called myelin that surrounds the neurons, allowing them to transmit information more efficiently.
Myelin acts as an insulator for neurons, fostering the process of myelination, which speeds up communication between brain cells. The presence of myelin allows for faster transmission of electrical impulses, improving the efficiency of neural communication.
Scientists have traditionally used electrodes inserted into the brain to measure electrical activity, but this method is challenging and time-consuming. More recently, researchers have developed fluorescent molecules, such as Archon1, that can be genetically inserted into neurons and emit light when brain cells are electrically active. This allows for a clearer understanding of how neurons work together and the impact of small fluctuations in electrical activity.
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