Trystan Casey
Hydroelectricity is a form of renewable energy that uses the power of moving water to generate electricity. It is one of the oldest and largest sources of renewable energy, dating back thousands of years. Hydropower facilities come in all sizes, from large dams like the Hoover Dam to small installations providing power to remote communities. An example of a large hydroelectric power plant is the Three Gorges Dam in China, which holds back the Yangtze River and has enough generators to produce 22,500 megawatts of power. In contrast, the 1.1 kW Intermediate Technology Development Group Pico Hydro Project in Kenya supplies 57 homes with small electric loads.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | Hydro or water power or water energy |
| Source | Gravitational potential or kinetic energy of a water source |
| Examples | Hoover Dam, Grand Coulee Dam, Three Gorges Dam, Chief Joseph Dam |
| Size | Micro hydro to large plants |
| Use | Electricity generation, powering machines, irrigation, flood control, water supply |
| Cost | Low upfront and maintenance costs, high installation costs |
| Producers | China, Brazil, Canada, U.S., Russia, India, Paraguay, Norway |
| Environmental Impact | Low greenhouse gas emissions, potential harm to downstream habitats |
| Types of Plants | Impoundment, diversion, pumped-storage |
| Types of Facilities | Dammed-hydro, run-of-river, pico hydro, conduit hydroelectricity |
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What You'll Learn
Hydroelectric power plants
The amount of electricity generated by a hydroelectric power plant depends on the volume of water flow and the change in elevation, or head. A high-head installation requires a smaller volume of water than a low-head installation to produce the same amount of power. Hydroelectric power plants are typically located in areas with heavy rainfall and hilly or mountainous regions, where there is a large drop in elevation.
Hydroelectric power offers several advantages over other energy sources. It is a renewable energy source that does not produce thermal pollution or flue gas emissions associated with fossil fuel combustion. It also avoids the hazards of coal mining and the indirect health effects of coal emissions. Additionally, hydroelectric power plants have relatively low maintenance, operational, and fuel costs compared to other electricity sources.
Micro hydro and pico hydro are smaller-scale hydroelectric power installations that can provide electricity to isolated homes, small communities, or remote areas with limited access to electricity. These systems can complement photovoltaic solar energy systems, as water flow and available hydropower are typically highest in the winter when solar energy is at a minimum.
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Advantages of hydroelectricity
Hydroelectricity, also known as hydropower, is a renewable source of energy that offers several advantages over other forms of energy production. Here are some key benefits:
Renewable and Reliable
Hydroelectric power is a renewable energy source that relies on the water cycle, which is driven by the sun. This means that it will never run out unless the water stops flowing, making it a highly reliable source of energy. Hydropower plants are built to last, with some equipment exceeding its expected operational lifespan.
Clean Energy
Hydroelectric energy is a clean and environmentally friendly form of energy production. It does not use any fossil fuels or produce harmful emissions, making it a more sustainable alternative to traditional power sources. The only pollution created by hydroelectric dams occurs during the initial construction phase.
High Efficiency
Hydroelectric power is highly efficient, with a conversion rate of up to 90% of water into electricity. This efficiency far surpasses other renewable sources like solar and wind power, which have lower efficiency rates and are more intermittent due to their reliance on sunlight and wind. Hydroelectric power provides a constant and stable supply of energy.
Flexibility and Backup Power
Hydropower facilities can quickly ramp up from zero power to maximum output, providing essential backup power during electricity outages or disruptions. This flexibility makes hydroelectric power a valuable supporting energy source for more intermittent renewable sources.
Job Creation and Economic Growth
The development and operation of hydropower plants create job opportunities, particularly in rural areas, contributing to local economic growth. The construction and maintenance of dams and reservoirs can also lead to the development of infrastructure, such as roads and highways, benefiting nearby towns and cities.
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History of hydropower
Humans have been harnessing water power to perform work for thousands of years. Ancient cultures, including the Greeks, Egyptians, Imperial Romans, and Chinese, used water-powered mills to grind wheat into flour. The Egyptians, for instance, used Archimedes water screws for irrigation during the third century B.C.
The evolution of the modern hydropower turbine began in the mid-1700s when French hydraulic and military engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor wrote the groundbreaking "Architecture Hydraulique," which described vertical- and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines. In 1771, Richard Arkwright's combination of water power, the water frame, and continuous production played a significant part in the development of the factory system, with modern employment practices.
In the 1840s, hydraulic power networks were developed to generate and transmit hydropower to end users, and in 1849, engineer James Francis developed the Francis Turbine, the most widely used turbine type today. By the late 19th century, the electrical generator was developed and coupled with hydraulics. The world's first hydroelectric project was used to power a single lamp in the Cragside country house in Northumberland, England, in 1878.
In 1880, a dynamo driven by a water turbine provided arc lighting to a theatre and storefront in Grand Rapids, Michigan. The following year, a dynamo connected to a turbine in a flour mill provided street lighting at Niagara Falls, New York. In 1882, the world's first hydropower plant began operations in Appleton, Wisconsin, on the Fox River. By the turn of the century, the technology was spreading globally, with Germany producing the first three-phase hydro-electric system in 1891, and Australia launching the first publicly-owned plant in the Southern Hemisphere in 1895.
In the 20th century, hydropower played a significant role in the United States, accounting for 15% of electrical generation by 1907 and 25% by 1920. The Federal Power Act was enacted in 1920 to regulate hydroelectric power stations on federal land and water. Large-scale development led to the creation of federally owned corporations, such as the Tennessee Valley Authority (1933) and the Bonneville Power Administration (1937). The Hoover Dam, completed in 1936, was the world's largest hydroelectric power station at the time, with an initial capacity of 1,345 MW.
In the late 20th century, Brazil and China became world leaders in hydropower. The Itaipu Dam, which opened in 1984 with a capacity of 12,600 MW, is now enlarged to 14,000 MW. The Three Gorges Dam in China, completed in 2008, is the largest in the world, producing 22,500 MW. In 2000, a landmark report by the World Commission on Dams challenged existing practices and initiated a shift towards sustainability and community impact considerations in hydropower development.
Today, hydropower supplies 15% of the world's electricity, providing a flexible, low-carbon energy source. China remains at the forefront of global hydropower development, adding 6.7 GW of new capacity in 2023 alone. In July 2025, Google signed the largest hydropower deal in history, acquiring up to 3 gigawatts of hydroelectric power in the United States as part of its commitment to clean energy.
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Types of hydroelectric energy plants
Hydroelectric power plants are categorised based on factors such as water resource availability, generation scale, and geographical conditions. There are three primary types of hydropower facilities: impoundment, diversion, and pumped storage.
Impoundment
Impoundment facilities, also known as conventional hydropower, use a dam and reservoir to store water and adjust energy production according to demand. They are flexible, allowing the amount of electricity produced to be increased or decreased in response to demand. They are also environmentally friendly, producing no direct waste and emitting fewer greenhouse gases than fossil fuel plants. However, when constructed in lowland rainforest areas, they can emit substantial greenhouse gases.
Diversion
Diversion facilities, also known as run-of-the-river plants, serve as base load power plants. Instead of using a dam, they divert part of the water flow through a channel to the turbines, allowing the river to continue flowing. This design minimises environmental impact but reduces water storage capacity.
Pumped Storage
Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) facilities work like giant batteries, storing electricity generated by other sources for later use. They store energy by pumping water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir during periods of low demand and releasing it back through turbines to produce electricity during high demand. PSH facilities can quickly switch between pumping and power generation, making them ideal for responding to peak load demands.
Hydroelectric power plants can also be classified as small or micro hydropower plants. Small hydro projects typically have a generating capacity of up to 10 megawatts (MW), although this limit can vary depending on local legislation and conditions. They are often built on smaller water streams and have a lower environmental impact than large hydro projects. Micro hydropower plants have a capacity of up to 100 kilowatts and can supply electricity for a single home, farm, or small community.
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Hydroelectricity in the US
Hydroelectricity, or hydropower, is one of the oldest and largest sources of renewable energy, using the natural flow of moving water to generate electricity. Hydroelectricity is a form of renewable energy that uses the power of moving water to generate electricity. Hydropower facilities come in all sizes, from massive dams to small, damless facilities that use municipal water facilities or irrigation ditches.
The United States is the third-largest producer of hydroelectric power in the world, after Brazil and China. In 2020, the total installed capacity for hydroelectric power in the US was 102.8 GW, up from 80 GW in 2015. Hydroelectric stations exist in at least 34 US states, with nearly all states having conventional hydroelectric facilities. The largest concentration of hydroelectric generation in the US is in the Columbia River basin, which in 2012 was the source of 44% of the nation's hydroelectricity.
The top five states for conventional hydroelectricity net summer generation capacity in 2023 were Washington, California, Oregon, New York, and Alabama. Washington has the highest conventional hydroelectricity-generation capacity of any state, and is home to the Grand Coulee Dam, the largest hydropower facility in the US. In 2023, about 60% of Washington's electricity came from hydropower. Hydropower accounts for a significant portion of the electricity generated in Idaho and Oregon as well, and these states have lower energy bills than the rest of the country.
The history of hydropower in the US dates back to the mid-1700s, when French hydraulic and military engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor wrote "Architecture Hydraulique". However, the first DC powerhouse was not built until 1880, in Grand Rapids, Michigan. The first commercial central DC hydroelectric power plant was built in 1882 in Appleton, Wisconsin. By 1886, between 40 and 50 hydroelectric stations were operating in the US and Canada, and by 1888, about 200 electric companies relied on hydropower for at least part of their generation.
Hydropower is an affordable source of electricity, with relatively low costs in terms of maintenance, operations, and fuel. The equipment used at hydropower facilities also tends to have long lifespans, reducing the need for replacements or repairs. However, there are also environmental concerns associated with hydropower, particularly the impact of dams on water use, river flow, and ecology.
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Frequently asked questions
Hydroelectricity is a form of renewable energy that uses the power of moving water to generate electricity.
Hydroelectric power plants are usually located in dams that impound rivers, creating a reservoir. When more energy is needed, water is released from the dam. Gravity then takes over and the water flows downward through a turbine, which powers a generator.
The Three Gorges Dam in China is the largest hydroelectric dam in the world in terms of electricity production. The dam holds back the Yangtze River and is 2,335 meters long and 185 meters tall. It has enough generators to produce 22,500 megawatts of power.
