Trystan Casey
Electrical signals in psychology are an important aspect of understanding how the human body functions. The study of how electricity is generated and used by the body is known as electrophysiology, with the discovery of 'animal electricity' being traced back to the 18th century. Electrical currents in the body are created by the flow of charged particles, specifically ions, which enter and exit neurons through ion channels. These ions are attracted to or repelled by each other based on their charge, allowing them to move through the body and transmit electrical signals. Techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG) are used to record and study the electrical activity of the brain, providing insights into brain function and allowing for the diagnosis and treatment of various neurological conditions.
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What You'll Learn
How neurons use electricity to signal
Electrical signalling in neurons is made possible by the presence of ion channels that allow specific ions to flow across neuronal membranes, changing the membrane potential of the cell. The membrane potential of a cell is determined by the concentration gradient of ions across its membrane and the permeability of its membrane to those ions.
Neurons are not intrinsically good conductors of electricity, but they have evolved mechanisms for generating electrical signals based on the flow of ions across their plasma membranes. The charged particles, in this case, are ions such as sodium ions (Na+). These charged particles flow because they are repelled by similar charges and attracted by opposite charges. For example, positively charged particles attract negatively charged particles, and vice versa.
During a nerve impulse, known as an action potential, positively charged ions move into the neuronal axon from the outside. As a result, the inside of the cell becomes more positive, triggering positive ion movement into the next section of the axon, creating a wave of positive potential flowing along the nerve. This action potential temporarily abolishes the negative resting potential, making the transmembrane potential transiently positive.
Action potentials are the fundamental signals that carry information from one place to another in the nervous system. They are propagated along the length of axons and are essential for transmitting information within the body.
The speed of electrical signalling in nerves is slower than in wires because, in nerves, the charged particles are ions, which are much larger than electrons and do not move in the same way. In wires, electrons can move quickly through conductive materials like metals, but in nerves, the ions move across the nerve in a wave-like manner, creating a distinct electrical signal.
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Electrical currents and charged particles
Electrical currents are flows of charged particles. In an electrical circuit, the charged particles are negatively charged electrons flowing in a wire. The motion of electrons in conductive metals in a specific direction is known as electric current. The SI unit of quantity of electric charge is the coulomb (C). The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that passes through the cross section of an electrical conductor carrying one ampere for one second.
In the human body, the charged particles are ions, such as the sodium ion (Na+). Ions are positively (or sometimes negatively) charged particles that are much bigger than electrons. They don't move down the nerve like electrons do. Instead, during a nerve impulse, positively charged ions move into the neuronal axon from the outside. When positive ions move into a cell, the inside of the cell becomes more positive. This triggers positive ion movements into the next bit of the axon, which also becomes positive, triggering ion movements across the next bit of axon, and so on, like a Mexican wave of a positive potential flowing along the nerve.
Electrical currents in the body are not exactly the same as electrical currents in a wire. In 1849, Hermann von Helmholtz measured the speed of electricity flowing in a frog's sciatic nerve, finding that it was slower than in wires.
Electroencephalography (EEG) is a method to record the spontaneous electrical activity of the brain. The signals detected by EEG represent the postsynaptic potentials of pyramidal neurons in the neocortex and allocortex. EEG is typically non-invasive, with electrodes placed along the scalp. Voltage fluctuations measured by the EEG bio-amplifier and electrodes allow for the evaluation of normal brain activity.
Electrical signalling in neurons (and other cells) works because they have ion channels that allow specific ions to flow across neuronal membranes and change the membrane potential of the cell. The membrane potential of the cell is determined by the concentration gradient of ions across its membrane and the permeability of its membrane to those ions.
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Electrical signalling in wires vs nerves
Electrical signalling in wires and nerves involves the transmission of electrical currents, which are flows of charged particles. However, the nature of these charged particles and the mechanisms of transmission differ between wires and nerves.
In wires, electrical signalling occurs through the movement of electrons, which are small negatively charged particles. Electrons travel quickly in materials that are good conductors of electricity, such as metals. When connected to a power source, electrons flow through the wire, creating an electric current. This is the basis of electrical circuits, where electrons move continuously in a closed loop.
On the other hand, in nerves, the charged particles are not electrons but ions. Ions are much larger than electrons and carry a positive or negative charge. Nerve cells, or neurons, have ion channels that allow specific ions, such as sodium (Na+) and potassium ions, to flow across their membranes. The movement of these ions changes the membrane potential of the cell, creating a nerve impulse or an "action potential". This action potential is a rapid change in electrical charge between the inside and outside of the nerve cell.
The key difference in electrical signalling between wires and nerves lies in the type of charged particles involved. In wires, electrons move rapidly along the conductive material. In contrast, nerves rely on the movement of larger ions, which enter and exit nerve cells through ion channels. This difference in charged particles leads to a notable distinction in the speed of electrical signalling. Electrical signalling in nerves is slower compared to wires because ions move differently than electrons. In nerves, a nerve impulse or action potential propagates along the nerve cell like a Mexican wave, with each section of the nerve cell becoming positively charged and triggering the movement of ions into the adjacent section.
The discovery of electrical signalling in nerves dates back to the late 18th century, when Lucia and Luigi Galvani found that electricity applied to a frog's leg muscle caused it to twitch. This led to the concept of "animal electricity" and marked a significant step towards understanding the role of electricity in animating our bodies and generating behaviours.
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Electroencephalography (EEG)
The signals detected by EEG represent the postsynaptic potentials of pyramidal neurons in the neocortex and allocortex. EEG is particularly useful for evaluating brain disorders, such as epilepsy, where seizure activity will appear as rapid spiking waves. It can also be used to diagnose lesions, Alzheimer's disease, psychoses, and sleep disorders like narcolepsy. Additionally, EEG can help determine the overall electrical activity of the brain, including in comatose patients, and monitor blood flow during surgery.
EEG has several advantages over other brain study methods, such as lower hardware costs and immediate care in high-traffic hospitals. However, it has relatively poor spatial sensitivity and cannot identify specific brain locations like PET and MRS can. The interpretation of EEG recordings can be time-consuming and complex, requiring precise placement of electrodes and the use of gels, solutions, and pastes to maintain good conductivity.
The rhythmic activity recorded by EEG is divided into frequency bands, with the most common range observed being 1-20 Hz. These frequency bands are typically analysed using computational methods and software tools. Despite some limitations, EEG provides valuable insights into brain function and has been widely used for many years.
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Synapses and neurotransmitters
The human brain uses electrical signalling to transmit information. This process is called neurotransmission, and it involves neurons communicating with each other via electrical events called 'action potentials' and chemical messengers or neurotransmitters. At the junction between two neurons, known as the synapse, an action potential triggers the release of neurotransmitters from one neuron, which then bind to receptors on the next neuron.
The synapse is a critical structure in neuronal communication, acting as the transmission site between the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic neurons. It typically includes the end of an axon, the dendrite of an adjacent neuron, and a gap between them called the synaptic cleft. The cleft is wide enough that electrical signals cannot directly impact the next neuron, so chemical signals or neurotransmitters are used to bridge this gap. These neurotransmitters can be excitatory or inhibitory, either helping or hindering the next neuron from firing its own action potential. The balance of excitatory and inhibitory inputs determines whether an action potential will be generated in the receiving neuron.
There are two main types of synapses: chemical and electrical. Chemical synapses, which are the most common type in the mammalian central nervous system, rely on neurotransmitters to relay signals. These neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles and released into the synaptic cleft. In contrast, electrical synapses allow for the direct passage of electrical current or signals between neurons through gap junctions.
Neurotransmitters play a crucial role in both types of synapses. They are small molecules that act as chemical messengers, fitting into specific receptors like a key into a lock. The type of neurotransmitter released and the corresponding receptors determine the quality and intensity of the transmitted information. For example, the brain's most common excitatory neurotransmitter is glutamate, while the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter is gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). These neurotransmitters have distinct effects on the post-synaptic neuron's ion channels, influencing the generation of action potentials.
The study of electrical signalling in the body, including neurons, is known as electrophysiology. Techniques such as electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have been developed to record and visualise this electrical activity in the brain. By understanding the electrical and chemical processes underlying neuronal communication, we gain insights into how our brains transmit information and generate behaviours.
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Frequently asked questions
Electrical signals in psychology are the means by which neurons communicate with each other. This process is called an "action potential" and involves the flow of charged particles, or ions, across neuronal membranes.
Neurons use electricity to signal by utilising the flow of charged particles, in this case, ions. These ions can be positively or negatively charged and are attracted or repelled by similar and opposite charges, respectively. During a nerve impulse, or action potential, positively charged ions move into the neuronal axon from the outside, making the inside of the neuron more positive. This triggers the movement of positive ions into the next section of the axon, creating a wave of positive potential flowing along the nerve.
Electrical signals in the brain can be measured using electroencephalography (EEG), a non-invasive method that involves placing electrodes along the scalp. The electrodes detect bio signals that represent the postsynaptic potentials of pyramidal neurons in the neocortex and allocortex.
Electrical signalling in nerves is slower than in wires because, in wires, electrons travel quickly through conductive materials like metals. In nerves, the charged particles are larger ions, which do not move down the nerve like electrons but instead enter the neuronal axon, changing the membrane potential.
