Trystan Casey
Hydropower, or hydroelectric power, is one of the oldest and largest sources of renewable energy, using the natural flow of water to generate electricity. Hydropower is used in nearly all US states and in more than 150 countries worldwide, with China, Brazil, Canada, and the United States being the top producers. Hydropower is a significant component of electricity production, accounting for more than 15% of all electricity produced globally. While hydropower has multiple benefits, including low greenhouse gas emissions and environmental advantages, it also has some drawbacks, such as population displacement and changes to the natural ecology of rivers.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Share of global electricity production | 15% in 2023 |
| Share of renewable electricity production | More than 50% |
| Global installed capacity | 1,416 GW in 2023 |
| Global weighted average cost of electricity | US$0.061 per kWh in 2022 |
| Number of conventional hydropower plants in the US | 1,450 |
| Number of pumped-storage hydropower plants in the US | 40 |
| US conventional hydroelectricity generation as a share of total US utility-scale electricity generation | 6% in 2023 |
| US pumped-storage hydroelectricity generation capacity | 23,167 MW in 18 states in 2023 |
| US conventional hydroelectricity net summer generation capacity | 80,090 MW in 2023 |
| Top 5 US states by share of conventional hydroelectricity net summer generation capacity | Washington, California, Oregon, New York, Alabama |
| Largest US hydropower facility | Grand Coulee Dam |
| Largest hydropower facility in the world | Three Gorges Dam, China |
| Countries with over 85% of electricity from hydropower | Norway, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Paraguay, Brazil |
| Countries with the highest hydropower installed capacity | China, Brazil, USA, Canada, India |
| Environmental impact | Low greenhouse gas emissions, no direct waste, potential loss of arable land and population displacement |
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What You'll Learn
Global hydropower capacity
Hydropower is one of the most commonly used renewable energy sources. In 2023, hydropower supplied 15% of the world's electricity, almost 4,210 TWh, which is more than all other renewable sources combined and also more than nuclear power. Hydropower represented 37% of the world's total installed renewable energy capacity in 2022, and added 2% to the total capacity of all renewables.
In 2021, global installed hydropower capacity rose by 26 GW to 1,360 GW. This increased to approximately 1,416 GW in 2023. However, this growth is not enough to reach net-zero targets. The IEA estimates that the "reservoirs of all existing conventional hydropower plants combined can store a total of 1,500 TWh of electrical energy in one full cycle", which is far more than pumped storage hydropower plants.
China dominates the global hydropower market, with a total installed capacity exceeding that of the next four leading countries (Brazil, the US, Canada, and Russia) combined. China added 13 GW in 2022, reaching a total installed capacity of 368 GW. In 2023, China's installed capacity was 421.54 GW, while Brazil had 109.8 GW, the US had 102.12 GW, and Canada had around 83 GW.
Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America all experienced severe droughts in 2022, reducing water supplies and the capacity use of plants. In 2022, Africa's hydropower capacity increased by 2.6 GW to reach 37.7 GW, generating at least 150 TWh. The region is the most untapped globally for hydropower development, with a potential capacity of 474 GW as of 2021.
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Hydropower's environmental impact
Hydropower is a widely-used renewable source of energy, accounting for about 17% of total electricity production globally. While it is often regarded as a "green" energy source, the construction and operation of hydropower plants can have significant environmental impacts.
The most notable impact of hydropower is the disruption of local ecosystems. The construction of large dams requires significant amounts of concrete, a carbon-intensive material. The production of cement for projects like the Hoover Dam releases large amounts of greenhouse gases, and the quarrying of sand and gravel causes habitat destruction. Additionally, the creation of reservoirs for dams can result in the flooding of land, leading to the destruction of forests, wildlife habitats, agricultural land, and scenic areas. The Three Gorges Dam in China, for example, resulted in the relocation of entire communities.
Hydropower projects can also negatively affect aquatic life. Dams can block the migration routes of fish, preventing them from travelling to find food or reproduce. While fish ladders, trap-and-haul systems, and other creative solutions have been implemented to mitigate these impacts, fish and other organisms can still be injured or killed by turbine blades. Low dissolved oxygen levels and colder temperatures in reservoir water can also negatively impact downstream plants and animals.
Methane emissions from decaying organic matter in reservoirs, as well as CO2 emissions during construction and operation, contribute to the carbon footprint of hydropower plants. Climate change-induced droughts may also reduce water flows to hydropower facilities, further impacting their efficiency.
However, it is important to recognize that not all wildlife impacts associated with dams can be solely attributed to hydroelectric power, as reservoirs are also used for agricultural irrigation, flood control, and recreation. Additionally, compared to fossil fuel power production, hydropower offers several advantages in terms of environmental impact.
To minimize the environmental impacts of hydropower projects, strategic site selection, innovative technologies, and optimized operations are crucial. Pumped storage hydropower (PSH), for instance, has the potential to minimize environmental impacts and make hydropower a more sustainable option for expanding capacity.
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Hydropower's economic impact
Hydropower, also known as hydroelectric power, is one of the oldest and largest sources of renewable energy. It uses the natural flow of water to generate electricity and is used in almost all US states. In 2022, hydropower accounted for about 6.2% of the total US electricity generation and 28.7% of total utility-scale renewable electricity generation. Hydropower is also the leading source of electricity in countries like Brazil, Norway, and China.
One of the economic impacts of hydropower is that it creates jobs in rural locations and boosts local economies. Hydropower facilities can vary in size, from large facilities like the Hoover Dam to smaller ones that take advantage of water flows in municipal water facilities or irrigation ditches. The construction of large hydropower facilities can create jobs and bring economic development to the surrounding areas. Additionally, most hydropower installations are required to provide some level of public access to the reservoirs, which can create recreational opportunities such as fishing, swimming, and boating.
Another economic impact of hydropower is the generation of low-cost electricity. Hydropower is an affordable source of electricity due to its low maintenance, operation, and fuel costs. The equipment used in hydropower facilities is designed to operate for longer periods without needing frequent replacements or repairs, resulting in cost savings over time. The upfront installation costs for large hydropower facilities can be significant, including civil construction and electromechanical equipment expenses. However, these costs can be minimized through proper location selection and design planning.
Hydropower also provides flexibility in electricity generation. Hydroelectric power plants can quickly ramp up or down their output in response to varying electricity demands. This flexibility makes hydropower a reliable source of backup power during major electricity outages or disruptions. Additionally, pumped-storage hydropower facilities can store excess energy during periods of low demand and release it during peak demand, optimizing the use of electricity.
In conclusion, hydropower has several economic impacts, including job creation, local economic development, affordable electricity, and flexibility in electricity generation. It is a renewable and cost-effective energy source that has been utilized for thousands of years, playing a crucial role in the energy sector of many countries.
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Hydropower's history
Hydropower has been used for thousands of years, with ancient cultures such as the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, and Chinese using water-powered mills for grinding wheat and other essential activities. The Greeks, for instance, used water wheels for grinding wheat into flour more than 2,000 years ago, while the Egyptians employed Archimedes water screws for irrigation during the third century B.C.
In the mid-1700s, French hydraulic and military engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published "Architecture Hydraulique," a groundbreaking work describing vertical- and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines. This marked the beginning of the evolution of the modern hydropower turbine.
During the late 18th century, hydraulic power played a pivotal role in the Industrial Revolution. In 1771, Richard Arkwright combined water power with the water frame and continuous production, significantly contributing to the development of the factory system and modern employment practices.
In the first half of the nineteenth century, several key advancements in hydropower technology took place. In 1827, French engineer Benoit created the first Fourneyron reaction turbine, capable of producing around 6 horsepower. Then, in 1849, British-American engineer James Francis developed the first modern water turbine, known as the Francis Turbine, which remains the most widely used turbine today.
The world's first hydroelectric project illuminated a single lamp in the Cragside country house in Northumberland, England, in 1878. Just four years later, in 1882, the first hydropower plant began operations in Appleton, Wisconsin, serving a system of private and commercial customers. Within a decade, hundreds of hydropower plants were operational worldwide. By the late 1800s, hydropower was being utilized in the United States, with plants installed in Grand Rapids, Michigan; Ottawa, Ontario; Dolgeville, New York; and Niagara Falls, New York, to supply mills and light local buildings.
In the 20th century, the construction of large-scale hydroelectric projects gained momentum, with notable examples including the Hoover Dam (completed in 1936) and the Grand Coulee Dam (completed in 1942). During World War II, hydropower played a crucial role in supporting the war effort, providing electricity for American industries. By 1945, Bureau of Reclamation dams had produced enough electricity to manufacture 69,000 airplanes, 5,000 ships, and tanks.
In the latter part of the 20th century, Brazil and China emerged as global leaders in hydropower development, with the Itaipu Dam in Brazil and Paraguay, and the Three Gorges Dam in China, showcasing impressive capacities of 14,000 MW and 22,500 MW, respectively. However, concerns about environmental and social impacts, along with financial constraints, led to a stagnation and subsequent decline in hydropower capacity growth in the late 1980s and 1990s.
The publication of a landmark report by the World Commission on Dams in 2000 prompted a shift towards more sustainable practices and considerations for affected communities in the planning and development of hydropower projects. This led to the formation of the International Hydropower Association (IHA) and the development of the Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol (HSAP), reflecting a growing appreciation for the technology's potential in addressing climate change, reducing poverty, and boosting prosperity.
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Hydropower's future
Hydropower is currently the world's largest source of renewable electricity, generating more than all other renewable technologies combined. It is expected to remain the largest source of renewable electricity generation into the 2030s and will play a critical role in decarbonising the power system.
However, hydropower's future is uncertain due to several factors. Firstly, there is a diminishing number of suitable sites for new hydropower plants, and environmental constraints are also a factor. Climate change is causing erratic rainfall and droughts, which is disrupting hydro production globally. Additionally, there are concerns over the environmental impact of hydropower, particularly regarding land use and effects on local ecosystems. The age of some hydropower fleets and the increasing maintenance and repair costs are also challenges that need to be addressed.
Despite these challenges, there are opportunities for the growth and optimisation of hydropower. Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) is a critical component of modern hydroelectric power technology and could play a significant role in integrating more intermittent renewables like wind and solar into the grid. The US, for example, has more than 2,000 hydropower dams, and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) believes that flexibility in power production could increase energy output. Additionally, the US has extended tax credits for the development of new hydropower facilities, and the Hydropower Clean Energy Future Act aims to expand clean and sustainable hydropower production in the country.
In conclusion, hydropower has the potential to continue providing clean, reliable, and affordable electricity to consumers for decades to come. However, addressing environmental concerns, optimising existing infrastructure, and integrating with other renewable energy sources will be key to securing its future.
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Frequently asked questions
Hydropower, or hydroelectric power, is a renewable energy source that uses the natural flow of moving water to generate electricity.
China is the largest producer of hydropower, followed by Brazil, Canada, and the United States. Norway is also highly dependent on hydropower, with nearly all of its electricity generated from hydropower.
Hydropower is one of the cleanest sources of electricity, with low greenhouse gas emissions and no pollution of water or air. It is also relatively low-cost over the full project lifetime and has a longer lifespan than other energy sources.
The construction of hydroelectric complexes can have significant environmental impacts, including the loss of arable land, population displacement, and changes to the natural ecology of rivers. Additionally, the upfront costs of building and constructing hydropower facilities are significant.
