Trystan Casey
The history of electricity is a long and fascinating one, with many pioneers contributing to its development over the centuries. While the concept of electricity has captivated humans for millennia, it was not until the 17th century that English scientist William Gilbert conducted a thorough examination of electricity and magnetism, marking a pivotal moment in our understanding of this phenomenon. From there, numerous breakthroughs and innovations paved the way for the widespread adoption of electricity, transforming homes and communities worldwide.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First working transistor | Germanium-based point-contact transistor invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947 |
| Bipolar junction transistor | Invented in 1948 |
| First to define positive and negative charges | Benjamin Franklin |
| First to link electricity and magnetism (and light) | James Clerk Maxwell, in "On Physical Lines of Force" in 1861 and 1862 |
| Discovery of bioelectromagnetics | Luigi Galvani in 1791 |
| First true battery | Invented by Italian scientist Alessandro Volta in 1800 |
| First electric motor | Invented by Michael Faraday in 1821 |
| First electrical circuit | Mathematically analysed by Georg Ohm in 1827 |
| First electric carriage | Developed by British inventor Robert Anderson at the beginning of the 19th century |
| First practical electric car | Invented by American chemist William Morrison in 1890 |
| First practical and accessible incandescent lightbulb | Patented by Thomas Edison in 1879 |
| First private electric system in the UK | 1881 |
| First private electric system in Canada | 1882 |
| First American home to be powered by hydroelectricity | A house in Appleton, Wisconsin in September 1882 |
| First large-scale power-generating operation | Established at Niagara Falls using a two-phase AC technique pioneered by Nikola Tesla |
| First gas turbine for power generation | Installed by Brown Boveri Co. in Neuchatel, Switzerland in 1939 |
| First commercial gas turbine for power generation | Installed by GE at the Belle Isle Station owned by Oklahoma Gas & Electric in July 1949 |
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What You'll Learn
The first true battery
Volta's invention was based on the discovery of animal electricity by his friend and fellow scientist Luigi Galvani in 1780. Galvani found that when two different types of metal came into contact with a dead frog's leg, an electrical current was produced that caused the leg to twitch. Volta disagreed with Galvani's theory, believing that the electricity was produced by the two metals joined by a moist intermediary. He verified this hypothesis through experiments and published the results in 1791.
Despite being a groundbreaking invention, Volta's batteries had a short battery life of around an hour. This was caused by two issues: the electrolyzation of the electrolyte solution, which formed hydrogen bubbles on the copper, increasing the internal resistance; and local action, where impurities in the zinc caused minute short-circuits, leading to degradation of the zinc. However, Volta's batteries provided a steadier current than Leyden jars and enabled new experiments, such as the first electrolysis of water.
In 1835, English inventor William Sturgeon solved the problem of local action by treating the surface of zinc with mercury, preventing the formation of short-circuits. In 1836, British chemist John Frederic Daniell addressed the issue of hydrogen bubble formation by using a second electrolyte to consume the hydrogen produced by the first. His invention, the Daniell cell, provided a longer and more reliable current than the Voltaic cell and became the industry standard, especially for telegraph networks.
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Early electric vehicles
The history of electric vehicles (EVs) dates back to the early 1800s, with the first electric vehicles predating gasoline-powered cars. The development of EVs can be divided into several periods, each marked by significant advancements and challenges.
Early Pioneers of Electric Mobility (1830-1880)
The first electric vehicles were crude electric carriages invented in the late 1820s and 1830s by pioneers such as Ányos Jedlik, Robert Anderson, Sibrandus Stratingh, Christopher Becker, and Thomas Davenport. These early models were small-scale electric cars or carriages powered by batteries. The focus during this period was on combining technological advances in batteries and motors to create working electric vehicles.
Transition to Motorized Transport (1880-1914)
The late 19th century saw the emergence of more practical and commercially available electric vehicles. Inventors in the US, such as William Morrison, introduced the first successful electric car around 1890. These early electric vehicles offered advantages over their gasoline competitors, including instant turning on, ease of operation, and a lack of noise, vibration, and odour. The Electrobat, introduced in the early 1890s, was one of the first electric automobiles in the US. By 1900, electric vehicles were more common on American roads than gasoline-powered cars, and electric battery-powered taxis became available in cities like London and New York.
Rise of the Internal Combustion Engine (1914-1970)
The early 20th century saw a decline in the use of electric vehicles due to the high cost, low top speed, and limited range of battery-powered vehicles compared to internal combustion engines. Gasoline was also cheap and abundant, hindering the demand for alternative fuel vehicles. However, electric vehicles still had their niche, especially in urban centres where they were suitable for low-speed and short-range uses.
Return of Electric Vehicles (1970-2003)
Soaring oil prices, gasoline shortages, and growing environmental concerns in the 1970s led to renewed interest in electric and alternative fuel vehicles. The introduction of the Toyota Prius in 1997 marked the beginning of the re-emergence of hybrid vehicles, and by the early 2000s, several major automakers were accelerating their work on electric vehicles.
The Modern Electric Revolution
With advancements in technology and a growing focus on sustainability, the 2000s and beyond have seen exponential growth in the electric vehicle market. Tesla's success spurred the development of plug-in hybrids and all-electric vehicles, and Norway has become a leader in EV adoption, with nearly 80% of new cars sold in the country being fully electric. The future of electric mobility looks bright as more countries commit to transitioning to sustainable transportation options.
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Electric power distribution
The history of electric power generation and distribution is a fascinating one, with many pioneers and innovations over the centuries. The first power-distribution systems were installed in European and US cities in the 1880s to supply lighting. At this time, electricity generation was mostly done through coal-fired steam generators, with power stations beginning to be established.
The development of functional transformers in the mid-1880s was a breakthrough, allowing AC power to be "stepped up" for transmission over long distances and then reduced for use by the end consumer. This was a significant improvement on the direct current (DC) systems of the time, which had much higher transmission costs. The war of currents between Thomas Edison and George Westinghouse highlighted the dangers of high-voltage AC systems, but AC's advantages led to its rapid adoption.
The invention of the first dynamo by Frenchman Hippolyte Pixii in 1832 was another important step forward, with improvements made over the following decades. By the 1870s, arc lighting was being used to light the streets of cities around the world, and the potential of electricity to light and power the world was becoming clear.
The electric power industry in the first half of the 20th century was often vertically integrated, with a single company handling generation, transmission, distribution, metering, and billing. Deregulation and privatisation began in the 1970s and 1980s, creating competitive markets for generation and retail, while distribution remained regulated.
Today, electric power distribution is the final stage in delivering electricity to consumers. Distribution substations connect to the transmission system and use transformers to lower the voltage to a medium level, which is then carried by primary distribution lines to transformers located near the customer. These distribution transformers further reduce the voltage to utilisation voltage, which is used by lighting, industrial equipment, and household appliances. Commercial and residential customers are connected through service drops, and larger power consumers may be connected directly to the primary distribution level. Urban distribution is mostly underground, while rural distribution uses utility poles, and suburban areas have a mix of both systems.
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Electric lighting systems
The progression of electric lighting technology from arc lamps to LEDs is a story with many international contributors.
In 1802, Russian physicist Vasily Vladimirovich (or Vasilij Vladimirovič) Petrov developed the first persistent electric arc. An arc lamp uses two aligned carbon electrodes that are initially touching and then slowly separated to a specific distance. Arc lighting was used experimentally as public lighting in Paris in 1841, and in 1846, the Opera Theatre in Paris became the first public building equipped with electric arc lamps. In 1876, Russian telegraph engineer Pavel Yablochkov (or Pawel Jablochkov Nikolayevich) invented the Yablochkov candle, the first practical carbon arc lamp, for public street lighting in Paris. In 1877, Charles F. Brush designed his own automatically regulated arc lamp and became the leading American producer of the lamps.
In 1879, Englishman Joseph Wilson Swan produced the first viable incandescent bulb. Swan used the Sprengel pump, developed in 1865, to reduce the pressure in the chamber to one-millionth of an atmosphere and eliminate almost all of the oxygen responsible for filament failure in previous models. This allowed the filament to last longer and extended the useful life of incandescent bulbs. The Savoy Theatre in London featured 1,194 of Swan’s lamps and became the first public building with incandescent lighting in 1881.
Around the same time, Thomas Edison was experimenting with thousands of different filaments, eventually landing on a carbonized bamboo fiber that lasted around 1,200 hours in 1880. This bulb was compared to three others at the 1881 International Exhibition of Electricity in Paris, where Edison’s bulb proved to be superior for commercial use. Edison didn't stop with improving the bulb—he developed a suite of inventions that made the use of light bulbs practical.
In 1901, Peter Cooper Hewitt created the first commercial mercury-vapor lamp. In 1910, Georges Claude demonstrated neon lighting at the Paris Motor Show. In 1917, Burnie Lee Benbow patented the coiled coil filament. In 1920, Arthur Compton invented the sodium-vapor lamp. In 1925, Marvin Pipkin invented the first internal frosted lightbulb. In 1962, Nick Holonyak, Jr. invented the first visible-spectrum LED in the form of red diodes. In 1987, Ching Wan Tang and Steven Van Slyke at Eastman Kodak created the first practical organic light-emitting diode (OLED). In 1995, Shuji Nakamura invented the first practical blue LED, and with additional phosphor, the first white LED, starting an LED boom.
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Rural electrification
The history of electricity is a long and fascinating one, stretching back millennia. However, the focus here is on rural electrification, which became a significant endeavour in the 20th century, particularly in the United States.
The Early Days of Electricity
Before delving into the electrification of rural areas, it's worth noting that electricity itself was an intellectual curiosity for a long time. The English scientist William Gilbert's work, "De Magnete," published in 1600, was one of the earliest careful studies of electricity and magnetism. However, it wasn't until the 19th century that rapid progress was made in electrical science, paving the way for later engineering advancements.
The Rural-Urban Divide in Electrification
In the 1880s, pioneers like Thomas Edison and George Westinghouse introduced practical electric power systems. By the 1920s, most cities and towns in America received electricity. However, rural areas lagged far behind. Running wires into the countryside with sparse populations seemed uneconomical. By 1932, only about 10% of rural America had electricity, and this electrical divide significantly impacted the quality of life and opportunities for rural residents.
The Rural Electrification Movement
Franklin D. Roosevelt recognised the issue of rural electrification during his 1932 presidential campaign. He worked with Congress to establish the Rural Electrification Administration (REA) and signed the Rural Electrification Act into law on May 20, 1936. This Act provided federal loans to cooperative electric power companies to install electrical distribution systems in isolated rural areas. These cooperatives purchased power wholesale and distributed it through their transmission and distribution lines. This initiative was part of Roosevelt's New Deal to address high unemployment during the Great Depression.
Impact and Challenges
The REA not only provided loans but also played a crucial educational role. Advisors like Louisan Mamer travelled around the country, teaching people how to use and maintain electrical equipment and safety precautions. The Rural Electrification Act faced interruptions due to World War II, and in 1944, Roosevelt reiterated its importance, emphasising that it should serve all rural areas, not just the more prosperous ones. Amendments to the Act over the years extended loan terms, allowed loans to telephone companies for rural connections, and later included provisions for rural broadband and internet access.
Technological Advancements
While the Rural Electrification Act focused on bringing electricity to rural areas, technological advancements were also taking place in the broader electricity and power generation sector. The invention of the first rudimentary dynamo is credited to Hippolyte Pixii in 1832, and subsequent improvements led to the widespread lighting of cities by the late 1870s. Innovations in gas turbine technology, the development of jet engines, and advancements during World War II propelled gas power technology forward.
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Frequently asked questions
The first true battery was invented by Italian scientist Alessandro Volta in 1800.
Thomas Edison pioneered the world's first electric power distribution system, marking the beginning of widespread electrification in homes and communities across the globe.
One of the earliest applications of electricity was the electrical telegraph, demonstrated commercially in 1837 by Cooke and Wheatstone.
In 1882, a house in Appleton, Wisconsin became the first American home to be powered by hydroelectricity. The first private electric system in Canada was established in the same year. The United Kingdom launched its first private system in 1881, and Australia embraced electricity in 1880.
