Wiktor Wise
The electric streetcar was a pioneering form of transport that began in Phoenix, Arizona, in the late 19th century. It was a cleaner, faster, and more comfortable mode of transportation than its horse-drawn predecessor. However, the rise of automobiles and a booming population made streetcars increasingly inefficient. A devastating fire in 1947 destroyed most of Phoenix's streetcars, and the city replaced them with gas buses. Similar stories played out across the United States, with companies like General Motors (GM) accused of conspiring to replace streetcars with buses to protect their profits. Today, the legacy of the electric streetcar's demise is echoed in the struggle of electric cars to gain widespread adoption, facing resistance from oil companies, automakers, and government policies.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date and location of introduction | 28 September 1893, Phoenix |
| Inventor | A Richmond, Virginia-based inventor |
| Key people involved | Moses Hazeltine Sherman, Mayor P.J. Cole, Kevin Weight, General Motors, National City Lines, Firestone Tire, Standard Oil of California, Federal Engineering, Phillips Petroleum, Mack Trucks, Pacific City Lines, American City Lines |
| Reasons for failure | Automobile competition, corporate collusion, underfunding, low population density, fire, high costs, lack of parts, low demand, lobbying by oil companies, advertising against electric cars, focus on more profitable enterprises |
| Popular culture references | Who Killed the Electric Car? (2006 documentary film), Revenge of the Electric Car (2011 documentary film) |
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What You'll Learn
The role of the oil industry
The oil industry has been a key player in the decline of electric streetcars and electric cars. The industry has a clear interest in maintaining its monopoly on transportation fuel, and oil companies have actively worked to prevent the widespread adoption of electric vehicles.
In the case of electric streetcars, there was a conspiracy led by General Motors (GM) in the 1930s to replace streetcars with buses. National City Lines (NCL), a bus company, gained control of transit systems in about 25 cities with investment from GM, Firestone Tire, Standard Oil of California, Federal Engineering, Phillips Petroleum, and Mack Trucks. NCL often converted streetcars to bus operations, and while some electric traction was preserved or expanded, the conspiracy led to the tearing up of almost 17,000 miles of streetcar tracks. Most of the companies involved were convicted in 1949 of conspiracy to monopolize interstate commerce in the sale of buses, fuel, and supplies.
The oil industry has also been accused of killing off the electric car. Writer-director Chris Paine's documentary, "Who Killed the Electric Car?" explores the role of the oil industry in limiting the development and adoption of electric vehicles. The industry has financed campaigns to kill utility efforts to build public charging stations and has advertised directly against electric cars. Oil companies have also been accused of manipulating oil prices to keep customers from moving towards alternative energy sources.
The documentary also examines the role of automobile manufacturers, specifically GM, in the demise of the electric car. GM killed its electric vehicle, the EV1, to focus on more immediately profitable enterprises, such as its Hummer and truck brands. However, GM has defended its decision, citing a lack of consumer interest due to the maximum range and relatively high price of the EV1, as well as inadequate support from parts suppliers.
Overall, the oil industry's resistance to change and fear of losing its monopoly on transportation fuel have contributed to the decline of both electric streetcars and electric cars. The industry has worked to maintain the status quo and prevent the widespread adoption of electric vehicles, despite the potential environmental benefits.
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Political influence
The death of the electric streetcar in the United States was influenced by a combination of political, economic, and technological factors. One significant political factor was the influence of corporations and lobby groups on government policies and decision-making.
There was a widespread conspiracy theory that a company called National City Lines, controlled by General Motors (GM), bought up streetcar systems across the country to replace them with buses. This theory was given some credence by a 1949 U.S. Supreme Court ruling that found GM, Firestone Tire, Standard Oil of California, Phillips Petroleum, and Mack Trucks guilty of conspiracy to monopolize interstate commerce in the sale of buses and supplies to NCL subsidiaries. However, the companies were acquitted of conspiring to monopolize the transit industry, and some scholars argue that the decline of streetcars was due to various factors beyond the control of any single monopolist.
In the 1930s, GM was found to have played a major role in the displacement of rail and bus transportation by buses and trucks. This was known as the "General Motors streetcar conspiracy." Between 1938 and 1950, National City Lines, with investment from GM and other companies, gained control of transit systems in about 25 cities, including St. Louis, Baltimore, Los Angeles, and Oakland. They often converted streetcars to bus operations, though some electric traction systems were preserved or expanded.
In addition to corporate influence, political ideologies and affiliations also played a role in the decline of electric streetcars. For example, in New York, there was opposition to the influence of "traction interests" on politicians, with both William Randolph Hearst and Al Smith being accused of being too close to these interests.
In more recent times, the federal government of the United States under the presidency of George W. Bush joined the auto industry suit against California in 2002, leading the state to abandon its zero-emissions vehicle (ZEV) mandate regulation. Bush's administration included several former executives and board members of oil and auto companies, and their failure to increase mileage standards was seen as serving short-term industry interests over long-term environmental goals.
The Trump administration has also been criticized for its actions against renewable energy projects, including wind, solar, and battery initiatives. They have slowed down projects with bureaucratic procedures and suggested banning wind and solar farms from public land. Additionally, they have eliminated tax credits and incentives for electric vehicles, making it harder for consumers to transition to more environmentally friendly options. While China has made significant strides in renewable energy technologies, the United States has been slow to adapt, relying heavily on oil and gas revenues and the political power they bring.
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Competition with automobiles
The electric streetcar was a popular mode of transport in the late 19th century, but it gradually declined due to several factors, including competition from automobiles. As cars became more prevalent on roads, they began driving on streetcar tracks, which led to inefficiencies in the streetcar system. The increase in automobile traffic caused congestion and delays for streetcars, affecting their schedules and reliability. This competition from automobiles played a significant role in the decline of electric streetcars, as they could no longer operate effectively due to crowded tracks and growing traffic.
Another factor contributing to the competition with automobiles was the development of the automobile industry. The emergence of powerful companies, such as General Motors, played a role in the decline of electric streetcars. General Motors, along with other companies like Firestone Tire, Standard Oil of California, and Mack Trucks, invested in transit systems across the country. These companies gained control of transit systems in cities like St. Louis, Baltimore, Los Angeles, and Oakland, and often converted streetcar lines into bus operations. The involvement of these companies in the transportation industry led to a shift from streetcars to buses, further intensifying the competition with automobiles.
Additionally, the convenience and flexibility offered by automobiles contributed to the competition. Cars provided individuals with a sense of freedom and the ability to travel at their own pace without relying on fixed routes and schedules. The ownership of a car represented a new form of status and independence, appealing to many Americans. This shift in consumer preferences and the growing love for automobiles after World War II, as mentioned in the Phoenix Herald, contributed to the decline of electric streetcars.
Moreover, the improvement in road infrastructure and the expansion of cities played a role in the competition. As cities expanded and leapfrogging developments occurred, streetcars became less efficient for covering longer distances. The non-contiguous growth of cities made it challenging for streetcars to serve all areas, while automobiles provided a more flexible and direct means of transportation. The development of roads and highways further favored the use of cars, as they could easily access various parts of the expanding cities.
The competition with automobiles was a significant factor in the decline of electric streetcars, but it is important to note that there were also other contributing factors. The rise of buses, financial challenges, and changing government regulations all played a role in the transition from electric streetcars to other forms of transportation. However, the increasing popularity and convenience of automobiles remained a central force in shaping the transportation landscape and ultimately contributed to the demise of electric streetcars.
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Public transport regulation
Public transport systems are governed by a broad legal framework known as transportation law. This field encompasses various federal and state regulations aimed at ensuring safety, efficiency, and fairness in the movement of people and goods across different modes of transport, including rail.
In the context of the electric streetcar, the relevant regulations would include those pertaining to safety standards, infrastructure funding, and environmental considerations. For instance, federal laws may dictate the required safety features on streetcars, such as seat belts or airbags, similar to those in passenger vehicles. Additionally, state laws may regulate traffic management, insurance requirements, and vehicle registration for streetcars operating within their jurisdiction.
The regulatory landscape can significantly impact the viability and public perception of different modes of public transport. For example, the electric streetcar system in Phoenix faced challenges due to chronic underfunding, with fares remaining unchanged for decades. Regulatory decisions around funding allocations can influence the development and sustainability of public transport systems.
Furthermore, environmental regulations and policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions may favour the adoption of electric streetcars over gas-powered alternatives. In the case of the electric streetcar's demise in Phoenix, the post-World War II love for automobiles, coupled with the population boom, contributed to the shift away from streetcars. However, regulatory interventions promoting environmentally friendly transportation options could potentially mitigate such factors and shape the future of public transport.
Additionally, regulations governing competition and consumer protection may also come into play. For instance, in the case of electric cars, there have been allegations of oil companies financing campaigns to hinder the development of electric vehicles and their associated infrastructure. Regulatory oversight in this context could help ensure a level playing field and prevent anti-competitive practices that may stifle innovation in public transport.
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Corporate collusion
In the case of electric streetcars, there was a well-documented conspiracy involving General Motors (GM) and several other companies, known as the General Motors streetcar conspiracy. Between 1938 and 1950, National City Lines (NCL) and its subsidiaries gained control of transit systems in about 25 cities, including Los Angeles, St. Louis, and Baltimore. NCL often converted streetcars to bus operations, and while electric traction was preserved or expanded in some locations, the conspiracy led to the tearing up of almost 17,000 miles of streetcar tracks.
The 1949 U.S. Supreme Court ruled in UNITED STATES v. NATIONAL CITY LINES, Inc., et al., finding several companies guilty of conspiracy to monopolize interstate commerce in the sale of buses, fuel, and supplies. The companies involved included GM, Firestone Tire, Standard Oil of California, Phillips Petroleum, and Mack Trucks.
While some argue that the decline of electric streetcars was primarily due to the rise of automobiles and other factors, the conspiracy undoubtedly accelerated the replacement of streetcars with buses and contributed to the demise of mass transit in favor of private automobiles.
Similarly, the failure of electric cars to gain widespread adoption in the late 1990s and 2000s can be partly attributed to corporate collusion and the interests of the auto and oil industries. The documentary "Who Killed the Electric Car?" explores how General Motors killed the EV1 to focus on more profitable enterprises, despite the potential benefits of electric vehicles. Oil companies were also afraid of losing their monopoly on transportation fuel, and auto companies feared short-term development costs and long-term revenue loss due to the low maintenance requirements of electric vehicles.
The oil industry even financed campaigns against utility efforts to build public charging stations and advertised directly against electric cars. Chevron, for example, bought patents and a controlling interest in Ovonics, an advanced battery company, to prevent modern batteries from being used in non-hybrid electric cars. These actions hindered the development and adoption of electric vehicles, demonstrating the power of corporate collusion in shaping the transportation landscape.
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Frequently asked questions
Between 1938 and 1950, National City Lines (NCL) and its subsidiaries, American City Lines and Pacific City Lines, gained control of transit systems in about 25 cities. NCL often converted streetcars to bus operations. In 1949, most of the companies involved were convicted of conspiracy to monopolize interstate commerce in the sale of buses, fuel, and supplies to NCL subsidiaries.
The popularity of the automobile meant that streetcars could no longer operate efficiently. Streetcar systems went bankrupt and were dismantled in virtually every metro area in the United States.
The 2006 documentary explores the creation, limited commercialization, and subsequent destruction of the electric vehicle in the United States, specifically the General Motors EV1 of the mid-1990s. The film explores the roles of automobile manufacturers, the oil industry, the federal government of the United States, and consumers in limiting the development and adoption of this technology.
The oil industry has been known to finance campaigns to kill utility efforts to build public car-charging stations. The auto companies also feared short-term costs for EV development and long-term revenue loss because EVs require little maintenance.
