Umair Gaines
Solar energy is an abundant and renewable energy source that can be converted into electricity through the use of photovoltaic (PV) cells, commonly known as solar cells. These PV cells are made of semiconductor materials, typically silicon, which is specially treated during manufacturing to enhance its ability to convert sunlight into electricity. When photons from sunlight strike the PV cell, they can be absorbed by the semiconductor material, dislodging electrons and generating an electric current. This current is then captured by the wiring in solar panels, creating direct current (DC) electricity. This DC electricity can be stored in batteries or converted into alternating current (AC) through the use of inverters, making it suitable for powering a wide range of household and industrial devices. The efficiency of PV cells has been steadily increasing, making solar energy an increasingly attractive option for generating clean and cost-effective electricity.
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What You'll Learn
Photovoltaic (PV) cells
When sunlight, composed of photons or particles of solar energy, shines on a PV cell, the light may be reflected, absorbed, or pass through the cell. When the semiconductor material absorbs enough sunlight, electrons are dislodged from the material's atoms. The electrons flow through the material as an electrical current, creating a voltage potential similar to the negative and positive terminals of a battery. This current is captured by the wiring in solar panels and can be used to power devices and homes.
The amount of electricity produced by PV cells depends on the characteristics of the light, such as intensity and wavelength, as well as the performance attributes of the cell. The efficiency of PV cells has improved over time, increasing from less than 10% in the mid-1980s to around 15% by 2015, and now approaching 25%. Experimental PV cells have achieved nearly 50% efficiency. PV systems are most productive when they are directly facing the sun, and their use can help reduce the cost of electricity, contribute to a resilient electrical grid, and provide backup power during outages.
PV cells are often assembled together to form solar photovoltaic (PV) panels or modules. These panels can be grouped into arrays of different sizes to power water pumps, individual homes, or provide utility-scale electricity generation. The first practical PV cell was developed in 1954 by Bell Telephone researchers Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller, and Gerald Pearson, and it was capable of converting enough solar energy to power everyday electrical equipment. Today, PV technology is used in satellites, spacecraft, and solar farms, and plays an important role in renewable energy initiatives worldwide.
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Solar cells
The photovoltaic effect is based on the photoelectric effect, which describes how light can influence the electrical properties of certain materials. When sunlight, composed of photons or particles of solar energy, shines on a PV cell, it may be reflected, absorbed, or pass through the cell. The PV cell is made of semiconductor material, which conducts electricity better than an insulator but not as well as a conductor like metal. When photons are absorbed by the semiconductor material, they transfer their energy to the electrons in the material. This energy allows the electrons to flow through the material as an electrical current. This current is then extracted through conductive metal contacts, which can be used to power homes and electrical grids.
PV cells are often made of silicon, the second most abundant material on Earth and the most common semiconductor used in computer chips. Silicon is used because of the arrangement of its electrons, with four out of a possible eight electrons in its outermost shell. This allows silicon atoms to form perfect covalent bonds with four other silicon atoms, creating a lattice structure that makes the conversion of light into electricity more efficient. Other materials used in PV cells include CdTe, CIGS, and perovskite, which is named after its crystal structure.
Multiple solar cells are assembled together in a single plane to form a solar PV panel or module. These modules typically have a sheet of glass on the side facing the sun, allowing sunlight to pass through while protecting the semiconductor wafers. Connecting solar cells in series increases voltage output, while parallel connections enhance current output. Solar panels are usually made from silicon or another semiconductor material installed in a metal panel frame with a glass casing.
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Solar panels
When sunlight hits the solar cells, the photovoltaic (PV) effect occurs, generating an electrical current. The PV effect is a process that allows sunlight to be captured and converted into electrical energy. Sunlight is composed of tiny packets of energy called photons, which strike the PV cell and are absorbed by the semiconductor material. The photons energize electrons within the silicon atoms, causing them to break free from their atomic bonds. The PV cell is designed with two layers of silicon – one positively charged (p-type) and one negatively charged (n-type). This creates an electric field that directs the flow of freed electrons, generating an electric current.
The electricity generated by solar panels is direct current (DC), but most household appliances and the power grid use alternating current (AC). Therefore, an inverter is needed to convert the DC electricity from the panels into AC electricity. This AC electricity can then be used to power homes, businesses, or fed back into the electrical grid.
The efficiency of solar panels has improved significantly over time. While the initial cost of installing solar panels can be high, the long-term savings on electricity bills can offset these costs. Additionally, solar panels can be tilted to capture the most sunlight at the optimal angle, usually matching the latitude of the location.
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Solar radiation
Photovoltaic (PV) panels are made of silicon or other semiconductor materials installed in a metal panel frame with a glass casing. When the sun shines on a solar panel, the PV cells absorb the energy from the sunlight. This energy creates electrical charges that move in response to an internal electrical field in the cell, causing electricity to flow. The electricity generated by PV panels is direct current (DC), which is captured by the wiring in solar panels and converted to alternating current (AC) by an inverter. AC is the type of electrical current used when plugging appliances into normal wall sockets.
The amount of solar radiation that reaches any spot on Earth's surface varies according to location, local weather, and the angle at which the sun's rays strike the surface. The sun's rays are most direct when they are vertical, and the Earth's surface receives the maximum energy possible. When the sun's rays are slanted, they travel through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse. Atmospheric conditions, such as clouds, can significantly impact the amount of direct beam radiation reaching the Earth's surface.
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The photovoltaic effect
Photovoltaic cells are based on the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon wherein a photon (the basic unit of light) impacts a semi-conductor surface like silicon and generates the release of an electron. The photovoltaic effect occurs in solar cells, which are composed of two different types of semiconductors—a p-type and an n-type—that are joined together to create a p-n junction. This junction forms an electric field in the region where they meet.
When photons of sunlight strike the surface of a solar cell, they can be absorbed by electrons in the valence band of the semiconductor material. These electrons then gain energy and move to the conduction band, where they are free to move. The built-in electric field of the p-n junction sweeps these excited electrons and the remaining holes in different directions, creating a flow of electrons or an electric current. This current is what we refer to as electricity.
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Frequently asked questions
Photovoltaic (PV) cells, commonly called solar cells, are non-mechanical devices that convert sunlight directly into electricity.
PV cells are made of semiconductor materials, most often silicon.
When photons of sunlight strike a PV cell, they are absorbed by the semiconductor material. When the semiconductor material absorbs enough sunlight, electrons are dislodged from the material's atoms. The movement of these electrons creates an electric current.
PV cells produce direct current (DC) electricity. Nearly all electricity supplied to homes and businesses is alternating current (AC). Inverters are devices that convert DC electricity from solar panels into AC electricity.
