Beatrice Lang
Electric batteries are devices that store chemical energy and convert it to electricity. They are composed of one or more electrochemical cells, each consisting of two electrodes separated by an electrolyte. The electrolyte can be any liquid or moist object with sufficient ions to be electrically conductive. The electrodes are made from different metals, which generate electricity when connected by an external circuit. The most common metals used in batteries are zinc, copper, and nickel. Other materials used in batteries include graphite, lithium, manganese, cobalt, and silicon.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Electrodes | Made of different metals |
| Electrolyte | Any liquid or moist object with enough ions to be electrically conductive |
| Voltaic pile | Made from two coins (such as a nickel and a penny) and a piece of paper towel dipped in saltwater |
| Primary batteries | Designed to be used until exhausted of energy and then discarded |
| Secondary batteries | Made in very large sizes; rechargeable |
| Daniell cell | Copper pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid and a zinc electrode |
| Terminals | Positive terminal is the cathode and the negative terminal is the anode |
| Chemical potential | Stores energy in the form of chemical potential |
| Electrochemical cell | Made up of two electrodes separated by an electrolyte |
| Electron flow | From anode to cathode |
| Chemical reaction | Occurs at one electrode and then they flow to the other electrode |
| EV Li-ion batteries | Contain cathode (NMC or LFP), anode (Graphite or Silicon), separator (PVDF polymer), and Electrolyte |
| Raw materials | Aluminium, copper, iron, cobalt, nickel, manganese, graphite, lithium |
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What You'll Learn
Electrochemical cells
An electric battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electricity. It consists of one or more electrochemical cells, each of which contains two electrodes (the anode and the cathode) separated by an electrolyte. The electrolyte can be any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive.
The anode and cathode of a battery are marked as negative and positive terminals, respectively. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, the negatively charged electrons flow out of the anode, through the circuit, and towards the cathode. This movement of electrons causes a redox reaction, converting higher energy reactants into lower energy products and generating electrical energy.
The specific materials used in the construction of electrochemical cells can vary, but they typically involve "base" metals such as aluminium, copper, and iron, as well as more expensive "precious" metals like cobalt, nickel, manganese, and lithium. The electrolyte can be a simple salt water solution, as seen in early batteries like the Daniell cell, or more complex solutions designed to improve energy density and battery performance.
Over time, the chemistry and structure of battery materials can change due to the incomplete reversal of processes in rechargeable batteries, leading to reduced performance and safety concerns. This is an area of active research, with scientists working to develop improved materials for anodes, cathodes, and electrolytes to enhance energy storage, safety, charging speed, and capacity.
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Cathodes and anodes
Batteries consist of two electrical terminals, the cathode and the anode, separated by a chemical material called an electrolyte. The cathode is the positive electrode, where reduction (gain of electrons) occurs, while the anode is the negative electrode, where oxidation (loss of electrons) takes place. During the charging process, electrons flow from the cathode to the anode, storing energy that can later be used to power devices.
The cathode and anode are the two electrodes in a battery or electrochemical cell, which facilitate the flow of electric charge. When a battery is supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode, and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, the negatively charged electrons flow through the circuit and reach the positive terminal, causing a redox reaction by attracting positively charged ions, or cations.
Cathode active materials (CAM) are typically composed of metal oxides. The most common cathode materials used in lithium-ion batteries include lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4 or LFP), and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO2 or NMC). Anode active materials (AAM), on the other hand, are generally made from carbon-based materials like graphite, silicon, or a combination of both. Graphite is the most commonly used anode material due to its high electrical conductivity, low cost, and stable structure. Silicon anodes offer higher energy density but face challenges in terms of volume expansion and shorter cycle life.
To manufacture anodes and cathodes, the necessary materials are first synthesized into the desired compounds to create the electrode. This mixture of compounds is referred to as cathode active materials (CAM) and anode active materials (AAM). These synthesized materials are then ground into a fine powder and mixed with binders and solvents to create a 'slurry' ready for further processing. The slurry mixtures are then coated onto a metal foil – usually, aluminium foil for the anode and copper foil for the cathode – and dried in an oven to secure the material to the foil and remove any remaining solvents. After drying, the foils undergo a 'calendering' process, where they are passed through a series of rollers to compress and smooth the coating, ensuring uniform thickness and proper adhesion. The resulting coated anode and cathode foils are then ready to be cut to size and combined with other components to build a lithium-ion battery cell.
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Electrodes and electrolytes
An electric battery is a device that stores chemical energy and converts it to electricity. It is composed of one or more electrochemical cells, each consisting of two electrodes (the cathode and the anode) separated by an electrolyte. The electrolyte can be any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive.
The cathode and anode are the two electrical terminals of a battery. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, negatively charged electrons flow from the anode (negative terminal) to the cathode (positive terminal) through the circuit, causing a redox reaction. This flow of electrons is what we refer to as electricity.
The electrolyte, meanwhile, allows positively charged ions to flow through it, balancing the charge of the electrons moving through the external circuit. This continuous flow of electrons and ions is what allows the battery to produce a sustainable, rechargeable system.
The materials used for the electrodes and electrolytes in batteries are critical to their performance and safety. For example, in lithium-ion batteries, the cathode is typically made of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides (NMC) or lithium iron phosphate (LFP), while the anode is made of graphite or silicon. The electrolyte in these batteries is a lithium salt dissolved in an organic solvent.
The choice of materials for electrodes and electrolytes can impact the battery's energy density, safety, sustainability, and cost. For instance, NMC cathodes offer higher energy density but are more expensive and environmentally concerning due to the use of cobalt. On the other hand, LFP cathodes are cheaper, safer, and more sustainable but have lower energy density.
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Primary and secondary batteries
Batteries are galvanic cells, or a series of cells, that produce an electric current. They are a source of electric power consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections for powering electrical devices.
There are two basic types of batteries: primary and secondary. Primary batteries are designed to be used until they are exhausted of energy and then discarded. Their chemical reactions are generally not reversible, so they cannot be recharged. When the supply of reactants in the primary battery is exhausted, the battery stops producing current and is discarded. Primary cells are made in a range of standard sizes to power small household appliances and consumer devices such as flashlights and portable radios.
Secondary batteries, on the other hand, can be recharged and used multiple times. The electrochemical reactions in secondary batteries are reversible, and the chemical reactants can be restored by running a charging current into the battery. Secondary batteries are made in very large sizes and can power a submarine or stabilize an electrical grid.
Both primary and secondary batteries use chemistry, in the form of chemical potential, to store energy. When a battery is connected to an external electric load, negatively charged electrons flow through the circuit and reach the positive terminal, causing a redox reaction by attracting positively charged ions, or cations. This results in higher energy reactants being converted to lower energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy.
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Rechargeable batteries
The key components of a rechargeable battery are the electrodes (anode and cathode) and the electrolyte. The positive and negative electrodes are made of different materials, with the positive exhibiting a reduction potential and the negative having an oxidation potential. The electrolyte is a chemical material that separates the electrodes and facilitates the movement of ions (charged atoms or molecules) during charging and discharging.
The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead-acid battery, which is widely used in automotive and boating applications. It consists of a lead anode and a lead dioxide cathode immersed in sulfuric acid. While it has a relatively low energy-to-weight ratio, its low manufacturing cost and high surge current levels make it a common choice.
More modern rechargeable batteries include lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, which are commonly used in portable electronics and electric vehicles. These batteries have a positively charged cathode, a negatively charged anode, and an electrolyte. The cathode is typically made from a mix of lithium, nickel, cobalt, and manganese, while the anode is often made of graphite. Other types of rechargeable batteries include nickel-cadmium (NiCd), nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4).
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Frequently asked questions
An electric battery is made of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections for powering electrical devices.
An electrochemical cell consists of two electrodes separated by an electrolyte.
Electrodes can be made of different metals, such as zinc and copper.
Any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive can serve as an electrolyte. For example, a piece of paper towel dipped in saltwater can act as an electrolyte.
Electric car batteries are typically lithium-ion batteries. They contain cathode (NMC or LFP), anode (Graphite or Silicon), separator (PVDF polymer), and electrolyte. Cathode and anode are coated on aluminium and copper current collectors, respectively.
