Wiktor Wise
Conductors are materials that allow electricity to flow through them easily. Materials with good mobility of electrons are known as conductors, while those with less mobility of electrons are referred to as insulators. Metals are common electrical conductors due to their high number of free electrons, which promote mobility. Silver is the best conductor of electricity because it contains a higher number of movable atoms (free electrons). However, silver is expensive and susceptible to tarnishing, so copper is the most common metal in electrical wiring due to its high conductivity and low cost. Other good electrical conductors include gold, steel, aluminium, and some non-metallic materials such as graphite and conductive polymers.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Material type | Metal, electrolyte, superconductor, semiconductor, plasma, non-metallic conductors (e.g., graphite, conductive polymers) |
| Atomic structure | Allows electricity to flow without requiring a large amount of energy for the passage of electrons between atoms |
| Malleability | High (can be handled without breaking) |
| Resistance to wear | High |
| Temperature resistance | High |
| Insulating layer | Yes (prevents the electric current from coming into contact with the surface) |
| Conductivity | High (allows electricity to flow through it easily) |
| Electromagnetic field | Generates its own electromagnetic field when electricity runs through it |
| External electromagnetic field | May produce magnetoresistance, which can slow the flow of current |
| Frequency | Above a certain level, high frequency can cause current to flow around a conductor rather than through it |
| Shape and size | Affects conductivity (e.g., thicker material conducts better than thinner material of the same size and length) |
| Temperature | Affects conductivity (increasing temperature decreases conductivity while increasing resistivity) |
| Impurities | Adding impurities decreases conductivity |
| Crystal structure and phases | Conductivity may slow slightly at the interface and may vary between structures |
| Valence electrons | Easily carry electric currents |
| Material processing | The way a material has been processed can affect its conductivity |
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What You'll Learn
Metals, the most common conductors
Metals are the most common conductors of electricity. This is because they have an atomic structure that allows electricity to flow without requiring a large amount of energy for the passage of electrons between atoms. The more free electrons present in a metal, the greater its conductivity. Electrons are the primary mover in metals.
Silver is the best metallic conductor of electricity. This is because it contains a higher number of movable atoms (free electrons). However, silver is expensive and tarnishes easily, so it is not always the ideal choice. Copper is the second-best conductor, but it is much cheaper and more widely used in household appliances and circuits. Most wires are copper-plated, and electromagnet cores are normally wrapped with copper wire. Copper is also easy to solder and wrap into wires, so it is often used when large amounts of conductive material are required.
Other good metal conductors include gold, steel, and aluminium. Gold is a good conductor and doesn't tarnish when exposed to air, but it is too expensive for common use. Steel and aluminium are characterised by their low cost and high conductivity and are frequently used in industrial areas.
The shape and size of a material affect its conductivity. For example, a thick piece of matter will conduct better than a thin piece of the same size and length. If you have two pieces of a material of the same thickness, but one is shorter than the other, the shorter one will conduct better because the shorter piece has less resistance.
Temperature also affects the conductivity of metals. In general, increasing the temperature causes thermal excitation of the atoms and decreases conductivity while increasing resistivity. Most metals are better conductors when cool and less efficient when hot. Some good conductors become superconductors at extremely low temperatures.
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Non-metallic conductors, like graphite and conductive polymers
Metals are common electrical conductors due to the free movement of delocalized electrons. However, non-metallic conductors, such as graphite and conductive polymers, also exist. Graphite is a form of elemental carbon with delocalized electrons, which enable it to conduct electricity. The electrical conductivity of graphite is anisotropic, meaning that it is much higher along the thickness of the layers than across them. The thermal conductivity of graphite is also notable, as it tends to increase or remain constant at extremely high temperatures above 1000°C. For this reason, graphite is used in heat shields and thermal control applications.
Graphite powder, which has lower electrical conductivity than solid graphite, can be mixed into polymers, plastics, or lubricants to increase the conductivity of non-metallic projects. Solid graphite, on the other hand, is commonly used in electrical applications, such as electrodes and electrical contacts, due to its high resilience and electrical conductivity.
Conductive polymers are another class of non-metallic conductors that have energized the field of organic conductors. Linear-backbone "polymer blacks" (polyacetylene, polypyrrole, polyindole, and polyaniline) and their copolymers are the main class of conductive polymers. Polyacetylene, in particular, drew the attention of scientists despite not finding practical applications itself. Poly(p-phenylene vinylene) (PPV) and poly(3-alkylthiophenes) are also notable examples of conductive polymers, with the latter being the archetypical material for solar cells and transistors. The molecular weights of conductive polymers are often lower than those of conventional polymers, and they are synthesized through chemical synthesis or electro (co)polymerization.
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Electrolytic conductors, where conduction occurs through a chemical reaction
Electrolytic conductors are materials that undergo decomposition when an electric current passes through them. They are called electrolytic conductors because they conduct electricity through the movement of ions.
Electrolytes are substances that dissolve in a solvent and dissociate into charged ions. The positive ions are called cations, and the negative ions are called anions. The presence of these ions allows electrolytes to conduct electricity. The more ions present, the higher the conductivity.
The degree of dissociation of an electrolyte determines the concentration of ions in the solution, and therefore its conductivity. Strong electrolytes, such as KNO3, have a high degree of dissociation, resulting in a high concentration of ions and good electrolytic conductance. Conversely, weak electrolytes, such as CH3COOH, have a low degree of dissociation, resulting in a lower concentration of ions and lower conductivity.
The concentration of the electrolyte can also affect its conductivity. While a higher concentration of ions generally increases conductivity, it can also hinder the mobility of the ions, reducing conductivity. Additionally, temperature affects the solubility of electrolytes, with higher temperatures increasing solubility and, consequently, the concentration of ions and electrolytic conduction.
Examples of electrolytic conductors include solutions of acids, bases, salts, and salts in water.
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Gaseous conductors, which go through an ionization process
Gaseous substances are generally poor conductors of electricity at atmospheric pressure as they do not have free electrons to carry current. However, gases can be made conductive through an ionization process. Ionization occurs when a large potential difference is applied across a gas column at very low pressure. This provides sufficient energy to ionize a few atoms, and the resulting free electrons have enough energy to bump into neighbouring atoms, producing more electrons. This process is called the Townsend avalanche.
Gases that have undergone ionization are called plasmas. Plasmas are highly electrically conductive and are dominated by electric and magnetic fields. They are composed of unbound positive and negative particles, though the overall charge of a plasma is roughly zero. The movement of these charged particles generates electric currents.
Examples of plasmas include neon signs and lightning, which are both examples of partially ionized plasmas. Fluorescent lights are also made of a gas that conducts a charge. This gas must be ionized by a large voltage before it can carry a normal current. Hydrogen is another gas with high electrical conductivity, although it is chemically unstable when it goes through the ionization process.
Salt solutions are also perfect conductors due to the ionization process of salts in aqueous mediums. However, salt solutions are not considered gaseous conductors.
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Temperature and its effect on conductivity
Materials that allow electricity to flow through them easily are known as electrical conductors. The most common electrical conductors are materials made of metal. Examples of metals with good conductivity are silver, copper, gold, and aluminium. The more free electrons present in a metal, the greater its conductivity.
Temperature has a significant effect on the efficacy of conductors. As the temperature rises, the number of phonons, or lattice vibrations, within the material increases. This movement disrupts the path of electrons, causing them to scatter and decreasing the total amount of current transferred. This results in an increase in resistance and a decrease in metal conductivity.
The effect of temperature on conductivity is expressed as a "relative change per degree Celsius" at a given temperature, usually shown as %/°C (at 25 °C). Slight temperature changes can have a noticeable effect on conductivity readings. For example, some insulators like glass are poor conductors when cool but become good conductors when heated.
On the other hand, most metals are better conductors when cool and less efficient when heated. This is because as the temperature increases in metals, the positive ions vibrate more, and the thermal speed of the electrons increases, leading to higher resistance.
The relationship between temperature and conductivity is also seen in liquids, where an increase in temperature leads to increased molecular movement, hindering heat transportation through the liquid.
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Frequently asked questions
A conductor is a material that allows electricity to flow through it easily.
Metals are common electrical conductors, with silver being the best. Other good conductors include copper, gold, steel, aluminium, and graphite.
Insulators are non-conducting materials. Examples of insulators include plastic, rubber, wood, glass, and air.
The shape, size, and temperature of a material can all impact its conductivity. Additionally, impurities in a conductor can decrease its conductivity.
