Molly Ayala
The human brain is an incredibly complex organ, capable of producing thoughts, behaviours, and perceptions of the world through electrical impulses. These impulses are the result of neurons communicating with each other, with each neuron exchanging signals with hundreds or thousands of others. This network of neurons is so intricate that it contains more possible connections than there are stars in a thousand Milky Way galaxies. While it was once believed that neurons transmitted signals as electric impulses, recent research has suggested that they may communicate through mechanical pulses instead. However, the exact mechanism of how electrical impulses in the brain work is still a subject of ongoing scientific investigation.
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What You'll Learn
How neurons work
Neurons are nerve cells that send messages via electrical and chemical signals to and from the brain, allowing humans to do everything from breathing to thinking. Each neuron is connected to another 1,000 neurons, creating a complex network of communication.
Neurons can be split into three parts: the dendrites, the soma, and the axon. Dendrites are thin filaments that carry information from other neurons to the soma. The soma, or cell body, is the portion of the neuron that receives information. The axon carries information from the soma and sends it to other cells. Both dendrites and axons are sometimes referred to as nerve fibres.
Neurons communicate via electrical impulses and specialised molecules called neurotransmitters. An electrical impulse is created by the movement of electrically charged atoms (ions) across the axon's membrane. This causes the neuron to release its neurotransmitters, which bind to nearby neurons. The recipient neurons then generate their own electrical impulses and release their own neurotransmitters, triggering the process in additional neurons.
Neurons can be split into types in different ways, for instance, by connection or function. Efferent neurons take messages from the central nervous system (CNS) and deliver them to cells in other parts of the body. Afferent neurons take messages from the rest of the body and deliver them to the CNS. Interneurons relay messages between neurons in the CNS. Sensory neurons carry signals from the senses to the CNS, while motor neurons carry signals from the CNS to muscles.
Neurons are born in the hippocampus and must then travel to the place in the brain where they will do their work. They use at least two different methods to travel: following the long fibres of cells called radial glia, or using chemical signals. Once they reach their destination, they settle into work, sending and receiving neurotransmitters.
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Dendrites' role in computing power
Neurons in the human brain receive electrical signals from thousands of other cells. Long neural extensions called dendrites play a critical role in incorporating all of that information so that the cells can respond appropriately.
Dendrites can be thought of as analogous to transistors in a computer, performing simple operations using electrical signals. They serve as nonlinear computing subunits, collecting inputs and spitting out intermediate outputs. Those signals are then combined in the cell body, which determines how the neuron as a whole responds.
MIT researchers have discovered that human dendrites have different electrical properties from those of other species. These differences may contribute to the enhanced computing power of the human brain. For example, human dendrites cover longer distances, so a signal flowing along a human dendrite from layer 1 to the cell body in layer 5 is much weaker when it arrives than a signal flowing along a rat dendrite from layer 1 to layer 5. Human and rat dendrites have the same number of ion channels, which regulate the current flow, but these channels occur at a lower density in human dendrites. Human neurons also have more electrical compartmentalization, allowing them to be more independent and potentially increasing the computational capabilities of single neurons.
In the future, researchers hope to explore further the precise impact of these electrical properties and how they interact with other unique features of human neurons to produce more computing power.
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Brain cell activity imaging
To overcome this limitation, scientists have developed new imaging techniques that provide a clearer picture of brain cell activity. One such technique involves using voltage-sensing molecules that fluoresce when brain cells are electrically active. This method has been successfully employed by researchers at Boston University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who were able to observe the activity of numerous individual neurons in mice brains.
Additionally, MIT researchers have engineered a light-sensitive protein that can be embedded into neuron membranes. This protein emits a fluorescent signal that indicates the voltage level of the cell, allowing scientists to study neuron behaviour on a millisecond scale. Furthermore, the molecule Archon1, which can be genetically inserted into neurons, becomes brighter as neuronal electrical activity increases, making it visible under a standard light microscope.
These advancements in brain cell activity imaging have facilitated a better understanding of how electrical impulses in the brain work. They have also provided insights into the impact of small fluctuations in neuronal activity and contributed to our knowledge of whole-brain dynamics and animal behaviour.
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Electric charge imbalances
Electrical impulses in the brain are facilitated by neurons, which are specialized cells of the brain and nervous system. Neurons maintain different concentrations of certain ions (charged atoms) across their cell membranes. Specifically, they have a high concentration of sodium ions outside the neuron and a high concentration of potassium ions inside. This difference in ion concentrations creates an electric charge imbalance, resulting in a membrane potential with a polarized membrane.
The neuronal membrane contains ion channels, which are specialized proteins that form pores in the membrane. These ion channels selectively open and close, allowing the passage of ions in a very specific sequence, which generates an electrical impulse known as the Action Potential. The flow of sodium and potassium ions across the neuronal membrane is crucial for the propagation of this electrical activity.
When a neuron generates an electrical impulse, it releases neurotransmitters, which are specialized molecules. These neurotransmitters bind to nearby neurons, triggering the creation of their electrical impulses and the release of their neurotransmitters, thus propagating the signal across the network of neurons. This process allows for the encoding of thoughts, feelings, and understanding, contributing to our perception of the world.
The efficiency of electrical impulse conduction in neurons is enhanced by the presence of myelin, an insulating material. Myelin wraps around the projections of neurons, acting as an electrical tape and fostering myelination, an insulation process that speeds up communication between brain cells. The development of myelin is influenced by mental activity, with stimulating environments and mastering new activities promoting its production.
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Mechanical vs electric pulses
The human brain is an incredibly complex organ, with billions of neurons firing electrical impulses and creating an intricate network of connections. These electrical impulses are the result of charged particles moving from one place to another, creating a current. This process is often referred to as an "action potential" and is facilitated by the presence of specific ions, such as sodium, potassium, and chloride. The movement of these ions creates a voltage across the membrane of the neuron, resulting in an electrical discharge.
While the concept of electrical impulses in the brain is widely accepted, there are alternative theories that propose a different mechanism for nerve signaling. One such theory suggests that nerve cells communicate through mechanical pulses rather than electric signals. This idea, known as the "mechanical neuron" hypothesis, posits that nerve pulses are the result of mechanical waves traveling through the nerve fibers. These fibers are surrounded by an oily cell membrane, which allows for the propagation of these mechanical waves.
The mechanical neuron hypothesis was proposed by scientist Heimburg, who suggested that nerve cells are more akin to mechanical machines than electric circuits. Heimburg's work highlights the complexity of nerve pulses and the potential limitations of our current understanding. By studying the mechanical properties of nerve cells, Heimburg and his colleagues have provided evidence that challenges the long-held belief in electric circuits. They suggest that the electric pulses observed may be side effects of physical shock waves rippling along the nerve fibers.
Furthermore, Heimburg's research also offers insights into the functioning of anesthetics. He proposes that anesthetics work by altering the mechanical properties of a nerve, rendering the nerve fibers too soft to transmit the mechanical shock waves. This theory, if proven correct, could have a significant impact on our understanding of biology and nerve signaling. It showcases the intricate interplay between the electrical and mechanical components of our nervous system.
In conclusion, while the electrical theory of nerve signaling has been the predominant view for decades, the mechanical neuron hypothesis presents a compelling alternative. The complex nature of nerve pulses and the limitations of historical measurement techniques may have contributed to the oversight of mechanical components. Further research and advancements in technology will aid in unraveling the mysteries of nerve signaling and enhancing our understanding of the brain's remarkable capabilities.
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Frequently asked questions
Electrical impulses in the brain are carried by neurons, which are cells that exchange signals with hundreds or thousands of other neurons. These electrical impulses are what allow for thoughts, behaviour, and perception of the world.
Neurons have a resting membrane electric potential of about --70 millivolts. This means that there is an inherent imbalance of electric charges across the membrane, with a higher concentration of Na+ ions outside the membrane and a higher concentration of K+ ions inside. When the ions are allowed to cross the membrane, the movement creates an electrical impulse.
Scientists have traditionally studied electrical impulses in the brain by inserting an electrode into the brain and recording the electrical activity. More recently, researchers at Boston University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have developed a voltage-sensing molecule that lights up when brain cells are electrically active, allowing them to see the activity of many individual neurons.
